Interactions on record — worth a quick check against your medications. Based on 7 of 8 ingredients. Check your meds →
Dietary supplement

Macular Health Ingredients & Drug Interactions

by EyePromise

Macular Health label
See full label image
Softgel Capsule Category: Other Combinations
Most serious interaction: Moderate
Clinical methodology reviewed by · Updated Sep 9, 2026 · Label data from the NIH DSLD
What is this page for?

First and foremost: checking Macular Health against your medications. The heart of this page is the interaction checker and the full interaction report — how this product’s ingredients may interact with prescription and over-the-counter medicines you may be taking.

Around that, we add a pharmacist’s high-level view of the product as a whole — what’s inside, the evidence for its stated use, how transparent the label is, and what safety data exists — so you can see the full picture in one place. It’s educational information from our licensed clinical databases and the clinical staff at HelloPharmacist — not medical advice — and we don’t sell or endorse products. Our editorial policy

The interaction bottom line Most serious interaction: Moderate

Macular Health is a dietary supplement by EyePromise with 8 active ingredients. Its ingredients are commonly taken for common cold and immune support, antioxidant support, skin health and collagen formation.Based on those ingredients, 1,056 medications have a known interaction with it, the most serious rated moderate. The ingredients most likely to interact are Mixed Tocopherols, Vitamin D, Fish Oil. Use the checker below to test your specific medication, or read the full HelloPharmacist Interaction Report.

Jump to a section

Check Your Meds Against Macular Health by EyePromise

Ask about any prescription or over-the-counter medication and we check it for interactions with Macular Health by EyePromise — and tell you which ingredient is responsible.

Pharmacist-reviewed data Checks every ingredient Answer in seconds
Prefer a human? Send your question to our licensed pharmacists — free, answered by email within 24 hours.

HelloPharmacist Scorecard of Macular Health by EyePromise

Our pharmacy team’s full take, with four database checks built into the cards below — a summary of what is known, not a grade of the product itself.

From our pharmacy team — supplement deep dive

Generated from HelloPharmacist’s pharmacist-curated databases and editorial rules · Last generated Jul 11, 2026

What’s inside

Full disclosure
Ingredient Transparency · database check
Full

Every active ingredient lists its own amount on the label.

Why this rating?
  • The label discloses an exact amount for 10 of its 10 active ingredients.
  • “Fish Oil” is listed as a grouped ingredient — the label gives one combined amount (250 mg) without saying how much of each component you get.

Macular Health contains 10 active ingredients designed to support eye health. The product includes two omega-3 fatty acids — eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid — sourced from fish oil, plus vitamins C, D, and E (as mixed tocopherols), alpha-lipoic acid, lutein (FloraGlo), and zeaxanthin (ZeaGold).

The inactive ingredients are bovine gelatin, glycerin, sorbitol, purified water, annatto extract, safflower oil, yellow beeswax, and soy lecithin.

Does it work?

Moderate evidence
Evidence for Intended Use · database check
By FDA rules, dietary supplements can’t claim to treat, cure, or prevent disease — so labels speak in careful marketing language. We discern each product’s intended use from its name, label claims, and label statements, then grade the clinical evidence for that use. How these ratings are computed
Moderate

Some clinical evidence supports this product's ingredients for its stated purpose, but it isn't conclusive.

Why this rating?
  • The label markets this product for: Eye and macular health support.
  • We looked for evidence on: Age-related macular degeneration (AMD), Asthenopia (eye strain), Cataract prevention, Blue light protection.
  • The strongest evidence on file: Lutein is rated "Possibly Effective" for Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) (Natural Medicines).
  • Also on file: Zeaxanthin is rated "Possibly Effective" for Age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
  • Also on file: Vitamin E is rated "Possibly Ineffective" for Age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

For age-related macular degeneration, lutein and zeaxanthin are rated possibly effective based on available evidence. Vitamin C is effective for vitamin C deficiency and possibly effective for cataracts and exercise-induced respiratory infections, among other uses.

Vitamin D is effective for familial hypophosphatemia, osteomalacia, renal bone disease, rickets, and hypoparathyroidism. Vitamin E is effective for vitamin E deficiency and ataxia with vitamin E deficiency.

Alpha-lipoic acid is rated possibly effective for diabetic nerve pain, high cholesterol, and obesity. For the omega-3 fatty acids and their specific roles in this formulation, the evidence isn't established in the data we hold.

The evidence, ingredient by ingredient Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Alpha-lipoic Acid Fish Oil Lutein Zeaxanthin

How safe is it?

Well-documented data
Safety Information · database check
Well characterized

Adverse-effect, pregnancy, and general safety data are on file for most of these ingredients.

Why this rating?
  • We hold adverse-effect (side-effect) data for 5 of the 6 matched ingredients.
  • Pregnancy & breastfeeding safety ratings cover 6 of 6.
  • General safety write-ups exist for 6 of 6.
  • Remember: this measures how much safety information exists. Thin data is not the same as being safe.

Vitamin C is generally well tolerated at normal doses but can cause abdominal cramps, heartburn, diarrhea, nausea, and headache at very high doses (above 2 grams daily); kidney stones are rare but have been reported in people prone to them. Vitamin D is well tolerated at recommended doses but excessive amounts can cause vitamin D toxicity with symptoms of high calcium levels.

Vitamin E is generally well tolerated at dietary amounts, but high-dose long-term use may increase the risk of bleeding and, rarely, hemorrhagic stroke. Alpha-lipoic acid is generally well tolerated but can cause headache, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and skin rash; it appears to lower blood sugar and is best used under medical guidance.

Lutein and zeaxanthin are well tolerated at typical supplement doses — lutein at up to 20 mg daily has shown no adverse effects. We hold no adverse effect data for the omega-3 fatty acids in this product.

Side effects, ingredient by ingredient Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Alpha-lipoic Acid Fish Oil Lutein Zeaxanthin

Meds to double-check

Moderate interaction found
Known Interaction Concern · database check
Moderate identified

The most serious documented interaction for these ingredients is Moderate. Check your medications for a personalized result.

Why this rating?
  • 5 of the 6 matched ingredients can interact with medications — Alpha-lipoic Acid, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin C, Zeaxanthin.
  • The most serious interaction on file is rated Moderate.
  • Some involve high-stakes drug classes: anticoagulant / antiplatelet drugs; immunosuppressants / transplant drugs; cancer treatments; diabetes medications; heart-rhythm medications.
  • For scale: 969 individual medications appear in the full list. A big number alone doesn't make a product dangerous — what matters is whether YOUR medication is on it, so run yours through the interaction checker on this page.

Double-check before using this product if you take blood thinners or antiplatelet drugs (vitamin C and E can increase bleeding risk), estrogen-containing birth control or hormone therapy (vitamin C may raise estrogen levels), thiazide diuretics or heart medications like verapamil, diltiazem, or digoxin (vitamin D can cause dangerously high calcium levels), chemotherapy drugs, warfarin, thyroid medication, diabetes drugs, or any medication metabolized by the CYP3A4 enzyme system. The most serious concern is Moderate-severity risk of bleeding with anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents.

Check your own medication Run your meds through the checker above

The bottom line

Scorecard at a glanceFully disclosed formula with some supporting evidence for its stated purpose. Moderate medication interactions have been identified, and safety information is well characterized.

Macular Health is intended for people looking to support eye health with lutein, zeaxanthin, and omega-3 fatty acids. If you take blood thinners, heart medications, diabetes drugs, chemotherapy, thyroid medication, or other prescriptions, you need to check your specific medications before starting this product — the vitamin C, D, and E content carries several documented interactions.

Talk to your pharmacist or doctor before use, especially if you're pregnant, nursing, or manage a chronic condition.

Educational only — not medical advice; always confirm with your pharmacist. Our editorial policy · How we use AI

Assessment coverage: 7 of 10 active ingredients matched to our full ingredient reviews (monographs). Based on the product label dated Mar 25, 2025.

This Scorecard evaluates available label information, ingredient evidence, and known medication-safety considerations. It does not independently verify product identity, purity, potency, contamination, or manufacturing quality. How these ratings are computed

At a glance

General information

Key facts about Macular Health, straight from the product label.

Brand EyePromise
Barcode (UPC) 185656000083
Net contents 60 Softgel(s)
Market status On market
Date entered into DSLD Mar 25, 2025
DSLD ID 321839
Product type Other Combinations
Supplement form Softgel Capsule
Dietary claims / uses All Other, Structure/Function
Intended target group(s) Adult (18 - 50 Years), Gluten Free
From the label
Everything in this section is reproduced from the manufacturer’s own product label — it’s the label speaking, not HelloPharmacist. We show it so you can see exactly what the maker states; we don’t verify or endorse those statements.

Supplement Facts

The label details for Macular Health by EyePromise, sourced from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database.

Supplement Facts

Daily Value (DV) Target Group(s):
Adults and children 4 or more years of age
Minimum serving Sizes:
2 Softgel(s)
Maximum serving Sizes:
2 Softgel(s)
Servings per container
30
UPC/BARCODE
185656000083
IngredientAmount% DV
Calories10 Calorie(s)--
Eicosapentaenoic Acid100 mg--
Docosahexaenoic Acid75 mg--
Vitamin C500 mg556%
Vitamin D50 mcg250%
Total Fat0.5 Gram(s)1%
Mixed Tocopherols20 mg--
Alpha-Lipoic Acid10 mg--
Fish Oil250 mg--
Vitamin E268 mg1787%
Total Omega-3 Fatty Acids190 mg--
FloraGlo10 mg--
ZeaGold10 mg--

Other ingredients: Bovine Gelatin, Glycerin, Sorbitol, Water, Purified, Annatto Extract, Safflower Oil, Yellow Beeswax, Soy Lecithin

Tap any ingredient to jump to its full detail below.

Label statements
These statements are the manufacturer’s wording, reproduced from the product label — the label is saying it, not HelloPharmacist. We don’t verify or endorse them.
Brand IP Statement(s)

For patent information visit eyepromise.com/patents

EyePromise Upgrade your eyes

AREDS 2 is a registered trademark of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Formula

ZeaGold ForaGLO Lutein

Suggested/Recommended/Usage/Directions

Directions: Adults take 2 softgels per day with a meal, or as directed by your eye care professional.

Storage

Store at room temperature: 59 degrees - 77 degrees F (15 degrees - 25 degrees C). Do not expose to excessive heat.

General Statements

Recommended by doctors. Trusted by professional athletes.

Formulation

Guaranteed to improve MPOD score.

AREDS 2-based without zinc Zinc-free

E 60-day money-back guarantee Eye health

Yeast/gluten free.

FDA Disclaimer Statement

These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.

Precautions

Warning: If you are pregnant or nursing, taking any medications or planning any medical procedure, consult your doctor before use.

Discontinue use and consult your doctor If any adverse reactions occur.

Keep out of reach of children.

Do not use if seal under cap is broken or missing.

Contains soy and fish (pollock, whiting, anchovy).

FDA Statement of Identity

Dietary Supplement

Seals/Symbols

NSF Contents Certified Manufactured in the U.S.A. with domestic and imported ingredients

Is this label outdated? Report a formula or label change and our pharmacy team will review it.

See for yourself

Macular Health by EyePromise label

The label scan from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database. Tap to enlarge.

Macular Health label

Label images are published by the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database for the version of this product on file. Always read your actual product label.

View the full label (PDF)
What’s inside

The Ingredients in Macular Health by EyePromise

These are the 8 active ingredients this product is made of. Select any to open its full monograph.

Serving size2 Softgel(s) Dosage formSoftgel Capsule Servings per container30 Amounts shown are per serving.

Most supplement products combine several ingredients, and a medication can interact with the product through any one of them. Each ingredient below shows whether it has known drug interactions.

Vitamin C

Interacts with
207 drugs
500 mg per serving Form: Ascorbic Acid

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an essential nutrient your body needs but cannot make, so you must get it from food or supplements. It's important for im...

Vitamin C monograph & interactions

Vitamin D

Interacts with
715 drugs
50 mcg per serving Form: Cholecalciferol

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that helps your body absorb calcium and is important for healthy bones, muscles, and immune function. Many people,...

Vitamin D monograph & interactions

Mixed Tocopherols

Interacts with
764 drugs
20 mg per serving

Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble vitamin and antioxidant that most people get in adequate amounts from a normal diet. Supplements can help correc...

Mixed Tocopherols monograph & interactions

Alpha-Lipoic Acid

Interacts with
263 drugs
10 mg per serving

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is an antioxidant made naturally by the body and found in small amounts in foods. It is most studied for diabetic nerve pain,...

Alpha-Lipoic Acid monograph & interactions

Fish Oil

Interacts with
327 drugs
250 mg per serving Form: Anchovy, Pollock, Whiting

Fish oil provides omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) that are best known for lowering high triglyceride levels. The evidence for other heart and health...

Fish Oil monograph & interactions
  • › Eicosapentaenoic Acid
  • › Docosahexaenoic Acid
  • › Total Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Vitamin E

Interacts with
764 drugs
268 mg per serving Form: D-Alpha-Tocopherol

Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble vitamin and antioxidant that most people get in adequate amounts from a normal diet. Supplements can help correc...

Vitamin E monograph & interactions

FloraGlo

No known
interactions
10 mg per serving Form: Lutein

Lutein is a plant-based antioxidant pigment that concentrates in the eye, and the best evidence suggests it (often combined with zeaxanthin) may help...

FloraGlo monograph & interactions

ZeaGold

Interacts with
86 drugs
10 mg per serving Form: Zeaxanthin

Zeaxanthin is a carotenoid pigment that, along with lutein, concentrates in the macula of the eye and may help support long-term eye health. The stron...

ZeaGold monograph & interactions

Other (inactive) ingredients: Bovine Gelatin, Glycerin, Sorbitol, Water, Purified, Annatto Extract, Safflower Oil, Yellow Beeswax, Soy Lecithin. These complete the product’s ingredient list but are not active constituents.

Interaction report

Macular Health by EyePromise Drug Interactions

Want to check YOUR meds against Macular Health?

Ask about interactions with your drugs in plain English — “Can I take it with lisinopril?” — and we find you the answer in seconds, ingredient by ingredient.

 Go to the checker
1,056Drugs
1,018 Moderate 38 Minor

Ingredients driving the most interactions

Mixed Tocopherols 764
Vitamin D 715
Fish Oil 327
Alpha-Lipoic Acid 263
Vitamin C 207

Individual Drug Interactions

The ingredients in Macular Health interact with 1,056 drugs. Click any drug to see the details.

6 of the 8 ingredients in Macular Health interact with drugs. Each result below shows which ingredient is responsible. Mixed Tocopherols Vitamin D Fish Oil Alpha-Lipoic Acid Vitamin C ZeaGold

Each ingredient & the kinds of drugs it affects

For each ingredient in Macular Health with known interactions, here are the types of medications they can affect. Open any type for the detail — or search your exact drug in the checker above.

Mixed Tocopherols8 drug types · 764 drugs

Alkylating Agents

Theoretically, antioxidant effects of vitamin E might reduce the effectiveness of alkylating agents.
There's concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs which generate free radicals, such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, carmustine, busulfan, and thiotepa. However, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that might interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin E have on chemotherapy. Advise patients to consult their oncologist before using vitamin E supplements, especially in high doses.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet Drugs

Concomitant use of vitamin E and anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents might increase the risk of bleeding.
Vitamin E seems to inhibit of platelet aggregation and antagonize the effects of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. These effects appear to be dose-dependent, and are probably only likely to be clinically significant with doses of at least 800 units daily. Mixed tocopherols, such as those found in food, might have a greater antiplatelet effect than alpha-tocopherol. RRR alpha-tocopherol (natural vitamin E) 1000 IU daily antagonizes vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. Advise patients to avoid high doses of vitamin E, especially in people with low vitamin K intake or other risk factors for bleeding.

Likelihood Possible Evidence B
Antitumor Antibiotics

Theoretically, antioxidant effects of vitamin E might reduce the effectiveness of antitumor antibiotics.
There's concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of antitumor antibiotic drugs such as doxorubicin, which generate free radicals. However, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that might interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin E have on chemotherapy involving antitumor antibiotics. Advise patients to consult their oncologist before using vitamin E supplements, especially in high doses.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune)

A specific form of vitamin E might increase absorption and levels of cyclosporine.
There is some evidence that one specific formulation of vitamin E (D-alpha-tocopheryl-polyethylene glycol-1000 succinate, TPGS, tocophersolan, Liqui-E) might increase absorption of cyclosporine. This vitamin E formulation forms micelles which seems to increase absorption of cyclosporine by 40% to 72% in some patients. However, this interaction is unlikely to occur with the usual forms of vitamin E.

Likelihood Unlikely Evidence B
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (Cyp3A4) Substrates

Theoretically, vitamin E might induce metabolism of CYP3A4, possibly reducing the levels CYP3A4 substrates.
Vitamin E appears to bind with the nuclear receptor, pregnane X receptor (PXR), which results in increased expression of CYP3A4. Although the clinical significance of this is not known, use caution when considering concomitant use of vitamin E and other drugs affected by these enzymes.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Selumetinib (Koselugo)

Taking selumetinib with vitamin E can result in a total daily dose of vitamin E that exceeds safe limits and therefore might increase the risk of bleeding.
Selumetinib contains 48-54 IU vitamin E per capsule. The increased risk of bleeding with vitamin E appears to be dose-dependent. Be cautious when using selumetinib in combination with supplemental vitamin E, especially in patients at higher risk of bleed, such as those with chronic conditions and those taking antiplatelet drugs.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Warfarin (Coumadin)

Using vitamin E with warfarin might increase the risk of bleeding.
Due to interference with production of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, use of more than 400 IU of vitamin E daily with warfarin might increase prothrombin time (PT), INR, and the risk of bleeding,. At a dose of 1000 IU per day, vitamin E can antagonize vitamin K-dependent clotting factors even in people not taking warfarin. Limited clinical evidence suggests that doses up to 1200 IU daily may be used safely by patients taking warfarin, but this may not be applicable in all patient populations.

Likelihood Possible Evidence B
Niacin

Vitamin E might decrease the beneficial effects of niacin on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.
A combination of niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) effectively raises high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels in people with coronary disease and low HDL levels. Clinical research shows that taking a combination of antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium) along with niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) attenuates this rise in HDL, specifically the HDL-2 and apolipoprotein A1 fractions, by more than 50%. Vitamin E alone combined with a statin does not seem to decrease HDL levels. It is not known whether the adverse effect on HDL is due to one of the other antioxidants or to the combination. It also is not known whether it will occur in other patient populations.

Likelihood Possible Evidence A
Mixed Tocopherols full monograph & interactions

Vitamin D8 drug types · 715 drugs

Aluminum

Vitamin D might increase aluminum absorption and toxicity, but this has only been reported in people with renal failure.
The protein that transports calcium across the intestinal wall can also bind and transport aluminum. This protein is stimulated by vitamin D, which may therefore increase aluminum absorption. This mechanism may contribute to increased aluminum levels and toxicity in people with renal failure, when they take vitamin D and aluminum-containing phosphate binders chronically.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Atorvastatin (Lipitor)

Vitamin D might reduce absorption of atorvastatin.
A small, low-quality clinical study shows that taking vitamin D reduces levels of atorvastatin and its active metabolites by up to 55%. However, while atorvastatin levels decreased, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels did not substantially change. Atorvastatin is metabolized in the gut by CYP3A4 enzymes, and researchers theorized that vitamin D might induce CYP3A4, causing reduced levels of atorvastatin. However, this proposed mechanism was not specifically studied.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Calcipotriene (Dovonex)

Taking calcipotriene with vitamin D increases the risk for hypercalcemia.
Calcipotriene is a vitamin D analog used topically for psoriasis. It can be absorbed in sufficient amounts to cause systemic effects, including hypercalcemia. Theoretically, combining calcipotriene with vitamin D supplements might increase the risk of hypercalcemia.

Likelihood Probable Evidence D
Digoxin (Lanoxin)

Theoretically, hypercalcemia induced by high-dose vitamin D can increase the risk of arrhythmia from digoxin.
High doses of vitamin D can cause hypercalcemia. Hypercalcemia increases the risk of fatal cardiac arrhythmias with digoxin. Avoid vitamin D doses above the tolerable upper intake level (4000 IU daily for adults) and monitor serum calcium levels in people taking vitamin D and digoxin concurrently.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Diltiazem (Cardizem, Others)

Theoretically, hypercalcemia induced by high-dose vitamin D can reduce the therapeutic effects of diltiazem for arrhythmia.
High doses of vitamin D can cause hypercalcemia. Hypercalcemia can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation. Theoretically this could also occur with diltiazem. Avoid vitamin D doses above the tolerable upper intake level (4000 IU daily for adults) and monitor serum calcium levels in people taking vitamin D and diltiazem concurrently.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Thiazide Diuretics

Theoretically, taking thiazide diuretics and high-dose vitamin D can increase the risk of hypercalcemia.
Thiazide diuretics decrease urinary calcium excretion, which could lead to hypercalcemia if vitamin D supplements are taken concurrently. This has been reported in people being treated with vitamin D for hypoparathyroidism, and also in elderly people with normal parathyroid function who were taking a thiazide, vitamin D, and calcium-containing antacids daily.

Likelihood Probable Evidence D
Verapamil (Calan, Others)

Hypercalcemia induced by high-dose vitamin D can reduce the therapeutic effects of verapamil for arrhythmia.
Hypercalcemia due to high doses of vitamin D can reduce the effectiveness of verapamil in atrial fibrillation. Avoid vitamin D doses above the tolerable upper intake level (4000 IU daily for adults) and monitor serum calcium levels in people taking vitamin D and verapamil concurrently.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (Cyp3A4) Substrates

Vitamin D might induce CYP3A4 enzymes and reduce the bioavailability of CYP3A4 substrates.
There is some concern that vitamin D might induce CYP3A4. In vitro research suggests that vitamin D induces CYP3A4 transcription. Additionally, observational research has found that increased UV light exposure and serum vitamin D levels are associated with decreased serum levels of CYP3A4 substrates such as tacrolimus and sirolimus, while no association between UV light exposure or vitamin D levels and levels of mycophenolic acid, a non-CYP3A4 substrate, was found. A small, low-quality clinical study shows that taking vitamin D reduces levels of the CYP3A4 substrate atorvastatin and its active metabolites by up to 55%; however, the clinical effects of atorvastatin were not reduced. While researchers theorized that vitamin D might induce CYP3A4, this proposed mechanism was not specifically studied.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Vitamin D full monograph & interactions

Fish Oil9 drug types · 327 drugs

Antihypertensive Drugs

Theoretically, taking fish oil with antihypertensive drugs might increase the risk of hypotension.
Clinical evidence indicates that fish oils can modestly lower blood pressure and might have additive effects in patients treated with antihypertensives.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Contraceptive Drugs

Theoretically, taking fish oil with contraceptive drugs might decrease the triglyceride-lowering effects of fish oil.
There is some evidence that contraceptive drugs might interfere with the triglyceride lowering effects of fish oils.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Cyclosporine (Neoral, Sandimmune)

Taking fish oil with cyclosporine might increase levels and adverse effects of cyclosporine.
In kidney transplant recipients on a general immunosuppressive regimen, taking omega-3 fatty acids daily seems to increase peak blood levels of cyclosporine when compared with placebo. This increase was as much as 20% after one month. However, the area under the curve was not significantly affected.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Orlistat (Xenical, Alli)

Theoretically, taking fish oil with orlistat might decrease the absorption of fish oil fatty acids.
Orlistat binds lipase in the gastrointestinal tract and reduces fat absorption. Theoretically, taking fish oil with orlistat might decrease absorption of fish oil fatty acids. To avoid this potential interaction, recommend separating administration of orlistat and fish oil by at least 2 hours.

Likelihood Probable Evidence D
Sirolimus (Rapamune)

Taking fish oil with sirolimus might increase levels and adverse effects of sirolimus.
Pharmacokinetic research shows that omega-3 fatty acids increase exposure to sirolimus in kidney transplant patients on a calcineurin inhibitor-free immunosuppressive regimen. A 25% dose reduction in sirolimus was required to keep patients within the expected trough-concentration window. Researchers hypothesize that this may be due to inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) by fish oil, although this has not been confirmed in clinical research.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Tacrolimus (Prograf)

Taking fish oil with tacrolimus might increase levels and adverse effects of tacrolimus.
In a small group of patients, taking fish oil 2.6 grams (Omacor) daily for 4 weeks increased the 8-hour area under the curve of tacrolimus by 25% when compared with baseline. Peak levels were increased by approximately 22%. Researchers hypothesize that this may be due either to an increase in bioavailability or to inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) by fish oil, although this has not been confirmed in clinical research.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet Drugs

Fish oil may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs. However, evidence is conflicting.
While fish oil may not be a potent inhibitor of platelet function, high doses of fish oil might have antiplatelet effects. Theoretically, concomitant use of fish oil with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs may increase the risk of bleeding. However, the most rigorous research shows that short-term doses of fish oil 10 grams daily or long-term doses of 1.5 grams daily for up to 52 weeks does not increase the risk of bleeding or affect coagulation parameters in chronically ill and vulnerable patients. Other controlled research shows that fish oil does not affect platelet function or increase the risk of bleeding. Some research even suggests that perioperative fish oil use decreases bleeding risk. Some research suggests fish oil does not have additive antiplatelet effects when combined with aspirin, but other clinical evidence suggests that adding fish oil to low-dose aspirin treatment increases antiplatelet effects in patients who are aspirin-resistant. Also, some clinical research seems to show that fish oil has additive antiplatelet effects when used with aspirin and clopidogrel compared to aspirin and clopidogrel alone.

Likelihood Unlikely Evidence B
Platinum Agents

Theoretically, taking fish oil with platinum agents can cause resistance to platinum agents, potentially decreasing their effectiveness.
Platinum-induced fatty acids (PIFAs) are fatty acids secreted from human and mouse stem cells when exposed to platinum-based chemotherapy. Animal research suggests that PIFAs cause resistance to chemotherapy by stimulating lysophospholipid production in the spleen, which interferes with the DNA damage caused by certain chemotherapy drugs. One PIFA, known as 16:4(n-3), has been found in both raw fish and some commercially available fish oil products. Mackerel and herring have high PIFA concentrations, while salmon and tuna have low PIFA concentrations. Levels of PIFA in commercial fish oil products ranged from 0.2- 5.7 microMol. Animal research shows that PIFA-containing fish oil products cause resistance to cisplatin, fluorouracil, irinotecan, and oxaliplatin. It is unclear if all commercially available fish oil products contain PIFAs. Additionally, it is argued that levels of PIFA found in some fish oil products are too low to be of clinical concern. Furthermore, a lack of chemotherapy resistance in countries with high fish intake, such as Greenland, Japan, and Norway, suggest that this interaction may not be clinically significant.

Likelihood Unlikely Evidence D
Warfarin (Coumadin)

Fish oil may have antiplatelet effects and might increase the risk of bleeding if used with warfarin.
Fish oil has antiplatelet effects at high doses. Case reports show elevated INR in patients taking warfarin and fish oil 1-2 grams daily. However, some clinical research shows that taking fish oil 3-6 grams daily does not significantly increase INR in patients taking warfarin.

Likelihood Unlikely Evidence B
Fish Oil full monograph & interactions

Alpha-Lipoic Acid5 drug types · 263 drugs

Alkylating Agents

Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of alpha-lipoic acid might alter the effectiveness of alkylating agents.
The use of antioxidants like alpha-lipoic acid during chemotherapy is controversial. There are concerns that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals. However, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that might interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as alpha-lipoic acid have on chemotherapy. Advise patients to consult their oncologist before using alpha-lipoic acid.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet Drugs

Theoretically, alpha-lipoic acid may have antiplatelet effects and may increase the risk of bleeding if used with anticoagulant or antiplatelet drugs.
In vitro, alpha-lipoic acid inhibits platelet aggregation.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Antitumor Antibiotics

Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of alpha-lipoic acid might alter the effectiveness of antitumor antibiotics.
The use of antioxidants like alpha-lipoic acid during chemotherapy is controversial. There are concerns that antioxidants could reduce the activity of antitumor antibiotic drugs, which work by generating free radicals. However, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that might interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as alpha-lipoic acid have on chemotherapy involving antitumor antibiotics. Advise patients to consult their oncologist before using alpha-lipoic acid.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Thyroid Hormone

Theoretically, alpha-lipoic acid might decrease the effects of thyroid hormone drugs.
Animal research suggests that co-administration of thyroxine with alpha-lipoic acid reduces conversion into the active T3 form.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Antidiabetes Drugs

Theoretically, taking alpha-lipoic acid with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
Although some small clinical studies have suggested that alpha-lipoic acid can lower blood glucose levels, larger clinical studies in patients with diabetes have shown no clinically meaningful effect. Additionally, co-administration of single doses of alpha-lipoic acid and glyburide or acarbose did not cause detectable drug interactions in healthy volunteers.

Likelihood Unlikely Evidence B
Alpha-Lipoic Acid full monograph & interactions

Vitamin C13 drug types · 207 drugs

Alkylating Agents

Theoretically, antioxidant effects of vitamin C might reduce the effectiveness of alkylating agents.
The use of antioxidants like vitamin C during chemotherapy is controversial. There is concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs that generate free radicals, such as cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, carmustine, busulfan, and thiotepa. In contrast, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effect, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on chemotherapy.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Aluminum

Vitamin C can increase the amount of aluminum absorbed from aluminum compounds.
Research in animals and humans shows that vitamin C increases aluminum absorption, theoretically by chelating aluminum and keeping it in solution where it is available for absorption. In people with normal renal function, urinary excretion of aluminum will likely increase, making aluminum retention and toxicity unlikely. Patients with renal failure who take aluminum-containing compounds such as phosphate binders should avoid vitamin C supplements in doses above the recommended dietary allowances.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Antitumor Antibiotics

Theoretically, the antioxidant effects of vitamin C might reduce the effectiveness of antitumor antibiotics.
The use of antioxidants like vitamin C during chemotherapy is controversial. There is concern that antioxidants could reduce the activity of chemotherapy drugs which generate free radicals, such as doxorubicin. In contrast, some researchers theorize that antioxidants might make chemotherapy more effective by reducing oxidative stress that could interfere with apoptosis (cell death) of cancer cells. More evidence is needed to determine what effects, if any, antioxidants such as vitamin C have on chemotherapy.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Estrogens

Vitamin C might increase blood levels of estrogens.
Increases in plasma estrogen levels of up to 55% occur under some circumstances when vitamin C is taken concurrently with oral contraceptives or hormone replacement therapy, including topical products. It is suggested that vitamin C prevents oxidation of estrogen in the tissues, regenerates oxidized estrogen, and reduces sulfate conjugation of estrogen in the gut wall. When tissue levels of vitamin C are high, these processes are already maximized and supplemental vitamin C does not have any effect on estrogen levels. Increases in plasma estrogen levels may occur when patients who are deficient in vitamin C take supplements. Monitor these patients for estrogen-related side effects.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Fluphenazine (Prolixin)

Theoretically, vitamin C might decrease levels of fluphenazine.
In one patient there was a clinically significant decrease in fluphenazine levels when vitamin C (500 mg twice daily) was started. The mechanism is not known, and there is no further data to confirm this interaction.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Indinavir (Crixivan)

Vitamin C can modestly reduce indinavir levels.
One pharmacokinetic study shows that taking vitamin C 1 gram orally once daily along with indinavir 800 mg orally three times daily reduces the area under the concentration-time curve of indinavir by 14%. The mechanism of this interaction is unknown, but it is unlikely to be clinically significant in most patients. The effect of higher doses of vitamin C on indinavir levels is unknown.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Levothyroxine (Synthroid, Others)

Vitamin C can increase levothyroxine absorption.
Two clinical studies in adults with poorly controlled hypothyroidism show that swallowing levothyroxine with a glass of water containing vitamin C 500-1000 mg in solution reduces thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) levels and increases thyroxine (T4) levels when compared with taking levothyroxine alone. This suggests that vitamin C increases the oral absorption of levothyroxine, possibly due to a reduction in pH.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Warfarin (Coumadin)

High-dose vitamin C might reduce the levels and effectiveness of warfarin.
Vitamin C in high doses may cause diarrhea and possibly reduce warfarin absorption. There are reports of two people who took up to 16 grams daily of vitamin C and had a reduction in prothrombin time. Lower doses of 5-10 grams daily can also reduce warfarin absorption. In many cases, this does not seem to be clinically significant. However, a case of warfarin resistance has been reported for a patient who took vitamin C 500 mg twice daily. Cessation of vitamin C supplementation resulted in a rapid increase in international normalized ratio (INR). Tell patients taking warfarin to avoid taking vitamin C in excessively high doses (greater than 10 grams daily). Lower doses may be safe, but the anticoagulation activity of warfarin should be monitored. Patients who are stabilized on warfarin while taking vitamin C should avoid adjusting vitamin C dosage to prevent the possibility of warfarin resistance.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
Acetaminophen (Tylenol, Others)

High-dose vitamin C might slightly prolong the clearance of acetaminophen.
A small pharmacokinetic study in healthy volunteers shows that taking high-dose vitamin C (3 grams) 1.5 hours after taking acetaminophen 1 gram slightly increases the apparent half-life of acetaminophen from around 2.3 hours to 3.1 hours. Ascorbic acid competitively inhibits sulfate conjugation of acetaminophen. However, to compensate, elimination of acetaminophen glucuronide and unconjugated acetaminophen increases. This effect is not likely to be clinically significant.

Likelihood Probable Evidence B
Aspirin

Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase aspirin levels.
It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels. However, short-term use of up to 6 grams daily of vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion, suggesting this interaction is not clinically significant.

Likelihood Possible Evidence B
Choline Magnesium Trisalicylate (Trilisate)

Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase choline magnesium trisalicylate levels.
It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels. However, short-term use of up to 6 grams daily of vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion, suggesting this interaction probably is not clinically significant.

Likelihood Possible Evidence B
Niacin

Vitamin C might decrease the beneficial effects of niacin on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels.
A combination of niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) effectively raises HDL cholesterol levels in patients with coronary disease and low HDL levels. Clinical research shows that taking a combination of antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, and selenium) along with niacin and simvastatin (Zocor) attenuates this rise in HDL, specifically the HDL-2 and apolipoprotein A1 fractions, by more than 50% in patients with coronary disease. It is not known whether this adverse effect is due to a single antioxidant such as vitamin C, or to the combination. It also is not known whether it will occur in other patient populations.

Likelihood Possible Evidence A
Salsalate (Disalcid)

Acidification of the urine by vitamin C might increase salsalate levels.
It has been suggested that acidification of the urine by vitamin C could increase reabsorption of salicylates by the renal tubules, and increase plasma salicylate levels. However, short-term use of up to 6 grams/day vitamin C does not seem to affect urinary pH or salicylate excretion, suggesting this interaction probably is not clinically significant.

Likelihood Possible Evidence B
Vitamin C full monograph & interactions

ZeaGold1 drug type · 86 drugs

Antidiabetes Drugs

Theoretically, taking zeaxanthin with antidiabetes drugs might increase the risk of hypoglycemia.
In an animal diabetic model, zeaxanthin has hypoglycemic effects. However, population research has found that increasing intake of dietary zeaxanthin plus lutein does not decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Likelihood Possible Evidence D
ZeaGold full monograph & interactions
The maker

Brand information

Manufacturer and brand details for Macular Health, from the product label.

EyePromise

See all EyePromise products
Name
ZeaVision Holdings Inc.
City
St. Louis
State
MO
ZipCode
63005
Phone Number
866.833.2800
Web Address
Eyepromise.com
Pharmacist Counseling Corner

Macular Health by EyePromise: Common Questions

Does Macular Health by EyePromise interact with any medications?
Yes. Based on its ingredients, Macular Health has a known interaction with 1,056 medications. Use the checker to see how it interacts with a specific drug.
How can one product interact with so many drugs?
Macular Health contains 8 active ingredients, and an interaction can come from any of them. We check every ingredient, combine the results into one list per medication, and show which ingredient and mechanism is responsible.
Where does this information come from?
The product label data comes from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD); the interaction data is built on the Natural Medicines database and reviewed by HelloPharmacist pharmacists.
Does this product contain any fillers or artificial ingredients?
The active ingredients are the lutein, zeaxanthin, vitamins, and omega-3 fatty acids. The product also contains inactive ingredients — bovine gelatin (the capsule), glycerin, sorbitol, purified water, annatto extract, safflower oil, yellow beeswax, and soy lecithin — which serve as excipients to make the softgel.
Can I take this if I'm pregnant or breastfeeding?
Lutein is rated likely safe in pregnancy and lactation. Vitamin D and C safety data during pregnancy advises caution with high-dose supplements — normal prenatal amounts are fine, but check with your doctor before taking additional supplements. Alpha-lipoic acid is rated to avoid in pregnancy and lactation due to insufficient safety data; zeaxanthin is likely safe. Talk with your doctor or pharmacist about what's right for you individually.
What is zeaxanthin, and why is it in this product?
Zeaxanthin is a carotenoid (a natural pigment) found in the retina of the eye. Like lutein, it's included in this product because evidence suggests it may be possibly effective for age-related macular degeneration. Both are antioxidants that concentrate in the macula, the part of the eye responsible for central vision.
Can high doses of the vitamins in this product cause side effects?
Yes. Vitamin C at very high doses can cause diarrhea, nausea, and kidney stones. Vitamin D in excessive amounts can cause vitamin D toxicity with high calcium levels. Vitamin E at high doses may increase bleeding risk. This product is a supplement dose, so side effects from the product itself are unlikely, but combining it with other supplements or very high intakes of these vitamins increases risk.
Is this product safe to take with my other medications?
That depends on what you take. Vitamin C, D, and E all have interactions with various medications — blood thinners, heart drugs, diabetes medications, and chemotherapy, among others. Use the medication checker on this page to search your specific drugs, or call your pharmacist before starting.

Written and reviewed by the HelloPharmacist editorial staff. Our editorial policy

Not sure if Macular Health is safe with your meds?

Our pharmacists answer your medication & supplement questions — free.

Ask a pharmacist

Label information is sourced from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database and reflects the product version on file; always read your actual product label. This page is for education only and is not a substitute for professional medical advice. Confirm with your pharmacist or doctor before combining supplements and medications.

Macular Health label
Go deeper

The Full Monographs Behind Macular Health’s Ingredients

Every ingredient we hold a full HelloPharmacist monograph for — uses, evidence, safety, and the complete interaction list.

Herb & supplement monograph

Vitamin C

Interacts with 207 drugs

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an essential nutrient your body needs but cannot make, so you must get it from food or supplements. It's important for immune function, collagen, and acts as an...

Read the full Vitamin C monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Vitamin D

Interacts with 715 drugs

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that helps your body absorb calcium and is important for healthy bones, muscles, and immune function. Many people, especially those with low sun exposure,...

Read the full Vitamin D monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Vitamin E

Interacts with 764 drugs

Vitamin E is an essential fat-soluble vitamin and antioxidant that most people get in adequate amounts from a normal diet. Supplements can help correct a true deficiency, but high-dose vitam...

Read the full Vitamin E monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Alpha-lipoic Acid

Interacts with 263 drugs

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is an antioxidant made naturally by the body and found in small amounts in foods. It is most studied for diabetic nerve pain, where some evidence suggests it may help...

Read the full Alpha-lipoic Acid monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Fish Oil

Interacts with 327 drugs

Fish oil provides omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) that are best known for lowering high triglyceride levels. The evidence for other heart and health benefits is mixed, and it is generally...

Read the full Fish Oil monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Lutein

Lutein is a plant-based antioxidant pigment that concentrates in the eye, and the best evidence suggests it (often combined with zeaxanthin) may help slow progression of age-related macular...

Read the full Lutein monograph → Herb & supplement monograph

Zeaxanthin

Interacts with 86 drugs

Zeaxanthin is a carotenoid pigment that, along with lutein, concentrates in the macula of the eye and may help support long-term eye health. The strongest evidence relates to slowing progres...

Read the full Zeaxanthin monograph →
Sources

Sources & How We Checked

Macular Health's label data comes from the NIH Dietary Supplement Label Database; the ingredient interaction data is from the Natural Medicines database, reviewed by our pharmacists.

Content is written and reviewed by licensed HelloPharmacist pharmacists. See our data sources and editorial standards for how this information is built and checked.

The 352 references behind this product’s interaction data

Every citation that drives the interaction findings for this product’s ingredients, from the evidence-graded Natural Medicines (TRC Healthcare) database. Open an ingredient to browse its citations — links open the study on PubMed or the publisher’s site.

Vitamin C 51 references
  1. McEvoy GK, ed. AHFS Drug Information. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 1998.
  2. Back DJ, Breckenridge AM, MacIver M, et al. Interaction of ethinyloestradiol with ascorbic acid in man. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981;282:1516.
  3. Morris JC, Beeley L, Ballantine N. Interaction of ethinyloestradiol with ascorbic acid in man [letter]. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1981;283:503.
  4. Labriola D, Livingston R. Possible interactions between dietary antioxidants and chemotherapy. Oncology 1999;13:1003-8.
  5. Dwyer JH, Merz NB, Shirocre AM, et al. Progression of early atherosclerosis and intake of vitamin C and vitamin E from supplements and food. The Los Angeles Atherosclerosis Study. 41st Annual Conference on Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology and Prevent
  6. Levine M, Rumsey SC, Daruwala R, et al. Criteria and recommendations for vitamin C intake. JAMA 1999;281:1415-23. PubMed
  7. Hansten PD, Horn JR. Drug Interactions Analysis and Management. Vancouver, WA: Applied Therapeutics Inc., 1997 and updates.
  8. Segal S, Kaminski S. Drug-nutrient interactions. American Druggist 1996 Jul;42-8.
  9. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069351/html/.
  10. Houston JB, Levy G. Drug biotransformation interactions in man VI: Acetaminophen and ascorbic acid. J Pharm Sci 1976;65:1218-21. PubMed
  11. Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1583-93. DOI
  12. Rosenthal G. Interaction of ascorbic acid and warfarin. JAMA 1971;215:1671. DOI
  13. Hume R, Johnstone JM, Weyers E. Interaction of ascorbic acid and warfarin. JAMA 1972;219:1479. DOI
  14. Smith EC, Skalski RJ, Johnson GC, Rossi GV. Interaction of ascorbic acid and warfarin. JAMA 1972;221:1166. DOI
  15. Traxer O, Huet B, Poindexter J, et al. Effect of ascorbic acid consumption on urinary stone risk factors. J Urol 2003;170:397-401.. PubMed
  16. Domingo JL, Gomez M, Llobet JM, Richart C. Effect of ascorbic acid on gastrointestinal aluminum absorption (letter). Lancet 1991;338:1467.
  17. Domingo JL, Gomez M, Llobet JM, Corbella J. Influence of some dietary constituents on aluminum absorption and retention in rats. Kidney Int 1991;39:598-601. PubMed
  18. Partridge NA, Regnier FE, White JL, Hem SL. Influence of dietary constituents on intestinal absorption of aluminum. Kidney Int 1989;35:1413-7. PubMed
  19. Mc Leod DC, Nahata MC. Inefficacy of ascorbic acid as a urinary acidifier (letter). N Engl J Med 1977;296:1413. DOI
  20. Hansten PD, Hayton WL. Effect of antacid and ascorbic acid on serum salicylate concentration. J Clin Pharmacol 1980;20:326-31. PubMed
  21. Dysken MW, Cumming RJ, Channon RA, Davis JM. Drug interaction between ascorbic acid and fluphenazine. JAMA 1979;241:2008. DOI
  22. Vihtamaki T, Parantainen J, Koivisto AM, et al. Oral ascorbic acid increases plasma oestradiol during postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. Maturitas 2002;42:129-35. PubMed
  23. Slain D, Amsden JR, Khakoo RA, et al. Effect of high-dose vitamin C on the steady-state pharmacokinetics of the protease inhibitor indinavir in healthy volunteers. Pharmacotherapy 2005;25:165-70. PubMed
  24. Cheung MC, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low HDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1320-6. PubMed
  25. Feetam CL, Leach RH, Meynell MJ. Lack of a clinically important interaction between warfarin and ascorbic acid. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1975;31:544-7. PubMed
  26. Weintraub M, Griner PF. Warfarin and ascorbic acid: lack of evidence for a drug interaction. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1974;28:53-6. PubMed
  27. Lee DH, Folsom AR, Harnack L, et al. Does supplemental vitamin C increase cardiovascular disease risk in women with diabetes? Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1194-200. PubMed
  28. Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Dietary factors and the risk of incident kidney stones in men: new insights after 14 years of follow-up. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004;15:3225-32. PubMed
  29. Ward NC, Hodgson JM, Croft KD, et al. The combination of vitamin C and grape-seed polyphenols increases blood pressure: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Hypertens 2005;23:427-34.. PubMed
  30. Prasad KN. Rationale for using high-dose multiple dietary antioxidants as an adjunct to radiation therapy and chemotherapy. J Nutr 2004;134:3182S-3S. PubMed
  31. Conklin KA. Cancer chemotherapy and antioxidants. J Nutr 2004;134:3201S-3204S. PubMed
  32. Fairweather-Tait S, Hickson K, McGaw B, et al. Orange juice enhances aluminium absorption from antacid preparation. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1994;48(1):71-3.
  33. Gruenwald, J., Graubaum, H. J., Busch, R., and Bentley, C. Safety and tolerance of ester-C compared with regular ascorbic acid. Adv.Ther. 2006;23(1):171-178.
  34. Rahimi, R., Nikfar, S., Rezaie, A., and Abdollahi, M. A meta-analysis on the efficacy and safety of combined vitamin C and E supplementation in preeclamptic women. Hypertens.Pregnancy. 2009;28(4):417-434. PubMed
  35. Einerson, B., Nathorn, C., Kitiyakara, C., Sirada, M., and Thamlikitkul, V. The efficacy of ascorbic acid in suboptimal responsive anemic hemodialysis patients receiving erythropoietin: a meta-analysis. J Med.Assoc.Thai. 2011;94 Suppl 1:S134-S146.
  36. Li, G., Li, L., Yu, C., and Chen, L. Effect of vitamins C and E supplementation on Helicobacter pylori eradication: a meta-analysis. Br.J Nutr 2011;106(11):1632-1637.
  37. Chen X, Shen L, Gu X, et al. High-dose supplementation with vitamin C--induced pediatric urolithiasis: the first case report in a child and literature review. Urology. 2014;84(4):922-4. PubMed
  38. Sattar A, Willman JE, Kolluri R. Possible warfarin resistance due to interaction with ascorbic acid: case report and literature review. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2013;70(9):782-6. PubMed
  39. Yaich S, Chaabouni Y, Charfeddine K, et al. Secondary oxalosis due to excess vitamin C intake: a cause of graft loss in a renal transplant recipient. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl. 2014;25(1):113-6. PubMed
  40. Jalloh MA, Gregory PJ, Hein D, et al. Dietary supplement interactions with antiretrovirals: a systematic review. Int J STD AIDS. 2017 Jan;28(1):4-15. PubMed
  41. Rumbold A, Ota E, Nagata C, Shahrook S, Crowther CA. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD004072. PubMed
  42. Seo MS, Kim JK, Shim JY. High-dose vitamin C promotes regression of multiple pulmonary metastases originating from hepatocellular carcinoma. Yonsei Med J. 2015;56(5):1449-52. PubMed
  43. Skelin M, Lucijanic T, Amidzic Klaric D, et al. Factors Affecting Gastrointestinal Absorption of Levothyroxine: A Review. Clin Ther. 2017 Feb;39(2):378-403. PubMed
  44. Jiang K, Tang K, Liu H, Xu H, Ye Z, Chen Z. Ascorbic acid supplements and kidney stones incidence among men and women: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Urol J. 2019;16(2):115-120.
  45. Thomas S, Patel D, Bittel B, et al. Effect of High-Dose Zinc and Ascorbic Acid Supplementation vs Usual Care on Symptom Length and Reduction Among Ambulatory Patients With SARS-CoV-2 Infection: The COVID A to Z Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open. 2 PubMed
  46. Giffen MA, McLemore JL. Hyperoxalosis Secondary to Intravenous Vitamin C Administration as a Non-Allopathic Treatment for Cancer. Acad Forensic Pathol 2019;9(1-2):118-126. PubMed
  47. Maike A, Sturgill D, Gallan A. Oxalate Nephropathy in a Renal Transplant Recipient After Receiving High Dose Ascorbic Acid. Am J Med Sci 2021. PubMed
  48. Shen ZY, Chen YR, Wang MC, Chang SS. High-dose vitamin C-induced acute oxalate nephropathy in a renal transplant recipient: a case report and literature review. Asian J Surg 2022. PubMed
  49. Yanase F, Spano S, Maeda A, et al. Mega-dose sodium ascorbate: a pilot, single-dose, physiological effect, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care 2023;27(1):371. PubMed
  50. Sharma Y, Sumanadasa S, Shahi R, et al. Efficacy and safety of vitamin C supplementation in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis. Sci Rep 2024;14(1):11846. PubMed
  51. Pejcic AV, Petrovic NZ, Djordjic MD, Milosavljevic MN. Vitamin C Levels in Pregnant Women and the Efficacy of Vitamin C Supplements in Preventing Premature Rupture of Membranes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Balkan Med J 2024;41(4):248-260. PubMed

See these in context on the Vitamin C monograph →

Vitamin D 26 references
  1. McEvoy GK, ed. AHFS Drug Information. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, 1998.
  2. Tatro DS, ed. Drug Interactions Facts. Facts and Comparisons Inc., St. Louis, MO. 1999.
  3. Koutkia P, Chen TC, Holick MF. Vitamin D intoxication associated with an over-the-counter supplement. N Engl J Med 2001;345:66-7. PubMed
  4. Bar-Or D, Yoel G. Calcium and calciferol antagonize effect of verapamil in atrial fibrillation. Br Med J 1981;282:1585-6.
  5. Demontis R, Leflon A, Fournier A, et al. 1 alpha(OH) vitamin D3 increases plasma aluminum in hemodialyzed patients taking AI(OH)3. Clin Nephrol 1986;26:146-9.
  6. Crowe M, Wollner L, Griffiths RA. Hypercalcemia following vitamin D and thiazide therapy in the elderly. Practitioner 1984;228:312-3.
  7. Parfitt AM. Thiazide-induced hypercalcemia in vitamin D-treated hypoparathyroidism. Ann Intern Med 1972;77:557-63. PubMed
  8. Thiazide diuretics and the risk of osteoporosis. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter 2003;19(11):191105.
  9. Moon J. The role of vitamin D in toxic metal absorption. J Am Coll Nutr 1994;13:559-64.
  10. Demontis R, Reissi D, Noel C, et al. Indirect clinical evidence that 1alphaOH vitamin D<SUB>3</SUB> increases the intestinal absorption of aluminum. Clin Nephrol 1989;31:123-7.
  11. Adler AJ, Berlyne GM. Duodenal aluminum absorption in the rat: effect of vitamin D. Am J Physiol 1985;249:G209-13. PubMed
  12. Schwartz JB. Effects of vitamin D supplementation in atorvastatin-treated patients: A new drug interaction with an unexpected consequence. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2009;85:198-203. PubMed
  13. Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. Institute of Medicine, November 30, 2010. Available at: http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Report%20Files/2010/Dietary-Reference-Intakes-for-Calcium-and-Vitamin-D/Vitamin%20D%20and%20Calcium%202010%20Repo
  14. Cox KA, Dunn MA. Aluminum toxicity alters the regulation of calbindin-D28k protein and mRNA expression in chick intestine. J Nutr 2001;131:2007-13. PubMed
  15. Escribano, J., Balaguer, A., Pagone, F., Feliu, A., and Roque, I. Figuls. Pharmacological interventions for preventing complications in idiopathic hypercalciuria. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2009;(1):CD004754. PubMed
  16. Carlton, S., Clopton, D., and Cappuzzo, K. A. Vitamin D deficiency: appropriate replenishment therapies and the effects of vitamin D toxicity. Consult Pharm 2010;25(3):171-177. PubMed
  17. Wang, H., Xia, N., Yang, Y., and Peng, D. Q. Influence of vitamin D supplementation on plasma lipid profiles: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lipids Health Dis. 2012;11:42. PubMed
  18. Turner AN, Carr Reese P, Fields KS, Anderson J, Ervin M, Davis JA, Fichorova RN, Roberts MW, Klebanoff MA, Jackson RD. A blinded, randomized controlled trial of high-dose vitamin D supplementation to reduce recurrence of bacterial vaginosis. Am J Obstet G PubMed
  19. Weiner M, Epstein FH. Signs and symptoms of electrolyte disorders. Yale J Biol Med. 1970;43(2):76-109.
  20. Lappe J, Watson P, Travers-Gustafson D, Recker R, Garland C, Gorham E, Baggerly K, McDonnell SL. Effect of Vitamin D and Calcium Supplementation on Cancer Incidence in Older Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. 2017 Mar 28;317(12):1234-1243. PubMed
  21. Roth DE, Leung M, Mesfin E, Qamar H, Watterworth J, Papp E. Vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy: state of the evidence from a systematic review of randomised trials. BMJ. 2017;359:j5237. PubMed
  22. Murai IH, Fernandes AL, Sales LP, et al. Effect of a single high dose of vitamin D3 on hospital length of stay in patients with moderate to severe COVID-19: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2021.
  23. Wang Z, Schuetz EG, Xu Y, Thummel KE. Interplay between vitamin D and the drug metabolizing enzyme CYP3A4. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2013;136:54-8. PubMed
  24. Doyle D, Browne U, Brickley A, Murphy D. Vitamin D-induced hypercalcaemia and acute kidney injury in sarcoidosis. BMJ Case Rep 2023;16(1):e250580. PubMed
  25. Williamson A, Martineau AR, Sheikh A, Jolliffe D, Griffiths CJ. Vitamin D for the management of asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2023;2(2):CD011511. PubMed
  26. Kinesya E, Santoso D, Gde Arya N, et al. Vitamin D as adjuvant therapy for diabetic foot ulcers: Systematic review and meta-analysis approach. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2023;54:137-143. PubMed

See these in context on the Vitamin D monograph →

Vitamin E 64 references
  1. Kim JM, White RH. Effect of vitamin E on the anticoagulant response to warfarin. Am J Cardiol 1996;77:545-6. PubMed
  2. Corrigan JJ Jr. The effect of vitamin E on warfarin-induced vitamin K deficiency. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1982;393:361-8. PubMed
  3. Corrigan JJ Jr. Coagulation problems relating to vitamin E. Am J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 1979;1:169-73.
  4. Corrigan JJ Jr, Marcus FI. Coagulopathy associated with vitamin E ingestion. JAMA 1974;230:1300-1. DOI
  5. Labriola D, Livingston R. Possible interactions between dietary antioxidants and chemotherapy. Oncology 1999;13:1003-8.
  6. Chang T, Benet LZ, Hebert MF. The effect of water-soluble vitamin E on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996;59:297-303. PubMed
  7. Pan SH, Lopez RR Jr, Sher LS, et al. Enhanced oral cyclosporine absorption with water-soluble vitamin E early after liver transplantation. Pharmacother 1996;16:59-65. DOI
  8. Anon. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Soprawivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 1999;354:447-55. DOI
  9. Chappell LC, Seed PT, Briley AL, et al. Effect of antioxidants on the occurrence of pre-eclampsia in women at increased risk: a randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:810-6. DOI
  10. Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The heart outcomes prevention evaluation study investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342:154-60. PubMed
  11. Stephens NG, Parsons A, Schofield PM, et al. Randomised controlled trial of vitamin E in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study. Lancet 1996;347:781-6.
  12. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1029-35. PubMed
  13. Takahashi O. Haemorrhagic toxicity of a large dose of alpha-, beta-, gamma- and delta-tocopherols, ubiquinone, beta-carotene, retinol acetate and L-ascorbic acid in the rat. Food Chem Toxicol 1995;33:121-8.
  14. Briggs GB, Freeman RK, Yaffe SJ. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation. 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 1998.
  15. Sano M, Ernesto C, Thomas RG, et al. A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer's disease. The Alzheimer's Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 1997;336:1216-22. PubMed
  16. Liede KE, Haukka JK, Saxen LM, Heinonen OP. Increased tendency towards gingival bleeding caused by joint effect of alpha-tocopherol supplementation and acetylsalicylic acid. Ann Med 1998;30:542-6.
  17. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069351/html/.
  18. Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1583-93. DOI
  19. Liu M, Wallmon A, Olsson-Mortlock C, et al. Mixed tocopherols inhibit platelet aggregation in humans: potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 2003;77:700-6. PubMed
  20. Sokol RJ, Johnson KE, Karrer FM, et al. Improvement of cyclosporin absorption in children after liver transplantation by means of water-soluble vitamin E. Lancet 1991;338:212-4.. PubMed
  21. Stein JH, Carlsson CM, Papcke-Benson K, et al. The effects of lipid-lowering and antioxidant vitamin therapies on flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery in older adults with hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:1806-13.. PubMed
  22. Carlsson CM, Papcke-Benson K, Carnes M, et al. Health-related quality of life and long-term therapy with pravastatin and tocopherol (vitamin E) in older adults. Drugs Aging 2002;19:793-805. . PubMed
  23. Cheung MC, Zhao XQ, Chait A, et al. Antioxidant supplements block the response of HDL to simvastatin-niacin therapy in patients with coronary artery disease and low HDL. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2001;21:1320-6. PubMed
  24. Schrogie JJ. Coagulopathy and fat-soluble vitamins (letter). JAMA 1975;232:19. DOI
  25. Celestini A, Pulcinelli FM, Pignatelli P, et al. Vitamin E potentiates the antiplatelet activity of aspirin in collagen-stimulated platelets. Haematologica 2002;87:420-6.
  26. Stampfer MJ, Jakubowski JA, Faigel D, et al. Vitamin E supplementation effect on human platelet function, arachidonic acid metabolism, and plasma prostacyclin levels. Am J Clin Nutr 1988;47:700-6. PubMed
  27. Jandak J, Steiner M, Richardson PD. Alpha-tocopherol, an effective inhibitor of platelet adhesion. Blood 1989;73:141-9. DOI
  28. Freedman JE, Farhat JH, Loscalzo J, Keaney JF. Alpha-tocopherol inhibits aggregation of human platelets by a protein kinase C-dependent mechanism. Circulation 1996;94:2434-40. PubMed
  29. Steiner M. Vitamin E, a modifier of platelet function: rationale and use in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease. Nutr Rev 1999;57:306-9. PubMed
  30. Brodkin RH, Bleiberg J. Sensitivity to topically applied vitamin E. Arch Dermatol 1965;92:76-7. DOI
  31. Booth SL, Golly I, Sacheck JM, et al. Effect of vitamin E supplementation on vitamin K status in adults with normal coagulation status. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:143-8. PubMed
  32. Miller ER 3rd, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, et al. Meta-analysis: High-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann Intern Med 2005;142:60520-53. PubMed
  33. Lonn E, Bosch J, Yusuf S, et al. HOPE and HOPE-TOO Trial Investigators. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;293:1338-47. PubMed
  34. Landes N, Pfluger P, Kluth D, et al. Vitamin E activates gene expression via the pregnane X receptor. Biochem Pharmacol 2003;65:269-73. . PubMed
  35. Brigelius-Flohe R. Vitamin E and drug metabolism. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;305:737-40. PubMed
  36. Prasad KN. Rationale for using high-dose multiple dietary antioxidants as an adjunct to radiation therapy and chemotherapy. J Nutr 2004;134:3182S-3S. PubMed
  37. Conklin KA. Cancer chemotherapy and antioxidants. J Nutr 2004;134:3201S-3204S. PubMed
  38. Schurks M, Glynn RJ, Rist PM, et al. Effects of vitamin E on stroke subtypes: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMJ 2010;341: c5702. doi: 10.1136/bmj.c5702.
  39. Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, et al. Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:754-64. PubMed
  40. Gaziano JM, Glynn RJ, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate total cancer in men: the physicians' health study II randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2009;301:52-62.
  41. Hayden KM, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Wengreen HJ, et al; Cache County Investigators. Risk of mortality with vitamin E supplements: the Cache County study. Am L Med 2007;120:180-4. PubMed
  42. Smedts HP, de Vries JH, Rakhshandehroo M, et al. High maternal vitamin E intake by diet or supplements is associated with congenital heart defects in the offspring. BJOG 2009;116:416-23. PubMed
  43. Klein EA, Thompson IM Jr, Tangen CM, et al. Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 2011;306:1549-56. PubMed
  44. Huang, H. Y., Caballero, B., Chang, S., Alberg, A. J., Semba, R. D., Schneyer, C. R., Wilson, R. F., Cheng, T. Y., Vassy, J., Prokopowicz, G., Barnes, G. J., and Bass, E. B. The efficacy and safety of multivitamin and mineral supplement use to prevent ca
  45. Sesso, H. D., Buring, J. E., Christen, W. G., Kurth, T., Belanger, C., MacFadyen, J., Bubes, V., Manson, J. E., Glynn, R. J., and Gaziano, J. M. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: the Physicians' Health Study II randomiz
  46. Papaioannou, D., Cooper, K. L., Carroll, C., Hind, D., Squires, H., Tappenden, P., and Logan, R. F. Antioxidants in the chemoprevention of colorectal cancer and colorectal adenomas in the general population: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Colorec PubMed
  47. Cooper, K., Squires, H., Carroll, C., Papaioannou, D., Booth, A., Logan, R. F., Maguire, C., Hind, D., and Tappenden, P. Chemoprevention of colorectal cancer: systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol.Assess. 2010;14(32):1-206. PubMed
  48. Mathew, M. C., Ervin, A. M., Tao, J., and Davis, R. M. Antioxidant vitamin supplementation for preventing and slowing the progression of age-related cataract. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2012;6:CD004567. PubMed
  49. Rahimi, R., Nikfar, S., Rezaie, A., and Abdollahi, M. A meta-analysis on the efficacy and safety of combined vitamin C and E supplementation in preeclamptic women. Hypertens.Pregnancy. 2009;28(4):417-434. PubMed
  50. Soares, K. V. and McGrath, J. J. Vitamin E for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2001;(4):CD000209. DOI
  51. Roed-Petersen, J. and Hjorth, N. Contact dermatitis from antioxidants. Br.J.Dermatol. 1976;94(3):233-241. PubMed
  52. Brion, L. P., Bell, E. F., Raghuveer, T. S., and Soghier, L. What is the appropriate intravenous dose of vitamin E for very-low-birth-weight infants? J.Perinatol. 2004;24(4):205-207. PubMed
  53. Manny, T., Pettus, J., Hemal, A., Marks, M., and Mirzazadeh, M. Penile sclerosing lipogranulomas and disfigurement from use of "1Super Extenze" among Laotian immigrants. J.Sex Med. 2011;8(12):3505-3510. PubMed
  54. Musso, G., Cassader, M., Rosina, F., and Gambino, R. Impact of current treatments on liver disease, glucose metabolism and cardiovascular risk in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. Diabe PubMed
  55. Bell, E. F. Upper limit of vitamin E in infant formulas. J.Nutr. 1989;119(12 Suppl):1829-1831. PubMed
  56. Manzano, D., Aguirre, A., Gardeazabal, J., Eizaguirre, X., and Diaz Perez, J. L. Allergic contact dermatitis from tocopheryl acetate (vitamin E) and retinol palmitate (vitamin A) in a moisturizing cream. Contact Dermatitis 1994;31(5):324.
  57. Barak, Y., Swartz, M., Shamir, E., Stein, D., and Weizman, A. Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a statistical meta-analysis. Ann.Clin.Psychiatry 1998;10(3):101-105.
  58. Chae CU, Albert CM, Moorthy MV, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and the risk of heart failure in women. Circ Heart Fail. 2012;5(2):176-82. PubMed
  59. Rumbold A, Ota E, Hori H, Miyazaki C, Crowther CA. Vitamin E supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2015;(9):CD004069. PubMed
  60. Prescribing information: KOSELUGO (selumetinib) capsules. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Available at: https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2020/213756s000lbl.pdf.
  61. Warshaw EM, Ruggiero JL, DeKoven JG, et al. Patch testing with tocopherol and tocopherol acetate: the North American Contact Dermatitis Group experience, 2001 to 2016. Dermatitis. 2021;32(5):308-18. PubMed
  62. US Preventive Services Task Force, Mangione CM, Barry MJ, et al. Vitamin, Mineral, and Multivitamin Supplementation to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer: US Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. JAMA 2022;327(23):2326-2333. PubMed
  63. Abrol R, Kaushik R, Goel D, Sama S, Kaushik RM, Kala M. Vitamin E-induced coagulopathy in a young patient: a case report. J Med Case Rep 2023;17(1):107. PubMed
  64. Abtahi-Naeini B, Rastegarnasab F, Saffaei A. Liquid vitamin E injection for cosmetic facial rejuvenation: A disaster report of lipogranuloma. J Cosmet Dermatol 2022;21(11):5549-5554. PubMed

See these in context on the Vitamin E monograph →

Alpha-lipoic Acid 48 references
  1. Labriola D, Livingston R. Possible interactions between dietary antioxidants and chemotherapy. Oncology 1999;13:1003-8.
  2. Anon. Alpha-lipoic acid. Altern Med Rev 1998;3:308-10.
  3. Konrad T, Vicini P, Kusterer K, et al. Alpha-lipoic acid treatment decreases serum lactate and pyruvate concentrations and improves glucose effectiveness in lean and obese patients with Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22:280-7. PubMed
  4. Ziegler D, Hanefeld M, Ruhnau KJ, et al. Treatment of symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid: A 3-week, multicentre randomized controlled trial (ALADIN Study). Diabetologia 1995;38:1425-33.
  5. Gleiter CH, Schreeb KH, Freudenthaler S, et al. Lack of interaction between thioctic acid, glibenclamide and acarbose. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1999;48:819-25. PubMed
  6. Jacob S, Henriksen EJ, Tritschler HJ, et al. Improvement of insulin-stimulated glucose-disposal in type 2 diabetes after repeated parenteral administration of thioctic acid. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabet 1996;104:284-8. PubMed
  7. Jacob S, Henriksen EJ, Schiemann AL, et al. Enhancement of glucose disposal in patients with type 2 diabetes by alpha-lipoic acid. Arzneimittelforschung 1995;45:872-4.
  8. Jacob S, Ruus P, Hermann R, et al. Oral administration of RAC-alpha-lipoic acid modulates insulin sensitivity in patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus: a placebo-controlled, pilot trial. Free Rad Biol Med 1999;27:309-14.
  9. Segermann J, Hotze A, Ulrich H, Rao GS. Effect of alpha-lipoic acid on the peripheral conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine and on serum lipid-, protein- and glucose levels. Arzneimittelforschung 1991;41:1294-8.
  10. Beitner H. Randomized, placebo controlled, double-blind study on the clinical efficacy of a cream containing 5% alpha-lipoic acid related to photoaging of facial skin. Br J Dermatol 2003;149:841-9.
  11. Ziegler D, Nowak H, Kempler P, et al. Treatment of symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy with the antioxidant alpha-lipoic acid: A meta-analysis. Diabet Med 2004;21:114-21.
  12. Prasad KN. Rationale for using high-dose multiple dietary antioxidants as an adjunct to radiation therapy and chemotherapy. J Nutr 2004;134:3182S-3S. PubMed
  13. Conklin KA. Cancer chemotherapy and antioxidants. J Nutr 2004;134:3201S-3204S. PubMed
  14. Vincent HK, Bourguignon CM, Vincent KR, Taylor AG. Effects of alpha-lipoic acid supplementation in peripheral arterial disease: a pilot study. J Alt Complement Med 2007;13:577-84. PubMed
  15. Furukawa N, Miyamura N, Nishida K, et al. Possible relevance of alpha lipoic acid contained in a health supplement in a case of insulin autoimmune syndrome. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2007;75:366-7. PubMed
  16. Ziegler D., Ametov A., Barinov A., Dyck P. J., Gurieva I., Low P. A., Munzel U., Yakhno N., Raz I., Novosadova M., Maus J., Samigullin, R. Oral treatment with alpha-lipoic acid improves symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy: the SYDNEY 2 trial. Diabetes Car
  17. Gu X. M., Zhang S. S., Wu J. C., Tang Z. Y., Lu Z. Q., Li H., Liu C., Chen L., Ning, G. [Efficacy and safety of high-dose a-lipoic acid in the treatment of diabetic polyneuropathy]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2010;90(35):2473-2476.
  18. Porasuphatana S., Suddee S., Nartnampong A., Konsil J., Harnwong B., Santaweesuk A. Glycemic and oxidative status of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus following oral administration of alpha-lipoic acid: a randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled
  19. Ansar H., Mazloom Z., Kazemi F., Hejazi N. Effect of alpha-lipoic acid on blood glucose, insulin resistance and glutathione peroxidase of type 2 diabetic patients. Saudi Med J 2011;32(6):584-588. DOI
  20. de Oliveira A. M., Rondó P. H., Luzia L. A., D'Abronzo F. H., Illison V. K. The effects of lipoic acid and a-tocopherol supplementation on the lipid profile and insulin sensitivity of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a randomized, double-blind, pla
  21. Mazloom Z., Ansar H. The Effect of Alpha-Lipoic Acid on Blood Pressure in Type 2 Diabetics. Iranian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2009;11(3):245-250.
  22. Volchegorskii I. A., Rassokhina L. M., Koliadich M. I., Alekseev M. I. [Comparative study of alpha-lipoic acid and mexidol effects on affective status, cognitive functions and quality of life in diabetes mellitus patients]. Eksp Klin Farmakol 2011;74(11):
  23. Cavalcanti D. R., da Silveira F. R. Alpha lipoic acid in burning mouth syndrome--a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial. J Oral Pathol Med 2009;38(3):254-261. PubMed
  24. Koh E. H., Lee W. J., Lee S. A., Kim E. H., Cho E. H., Jeong E., Kim D. W., Kim M. S., Park J. Y., Park K. G., Lee H. J., Lee I. K., Lim S., Jang H. C., Lee K. H., Lee K. U. Effects of alpha-lipoic Acid on body weight in obese subjects. Am J Med 2011;124( PubMed
  25. Bergqvist-Karlsson, A., Thelin, I., and Bergendorff, O. Contact dermatitis to alpha-lipoic acid in an anti-wrinkle cream. Contact Dermatitis 2006;55(1):56-57.
  26. Tang, J., Wingerchuk, D. M., Crum, B. A., Rubin, D. I., and Demaerschalk, B. M. Alpha-lipoic acid may improve symptomatic diabetic polyneuropathy. Neurologist. 2007;13(3):164-167. PubMed
  27. Hegazy SK, Tolba OA, Mostafa TM, Eid MA, El-Afify DR. Alpha-lipoic acid improves subclinical left ventricular dysfunction in asymptomatic patients with type 1 diabetes. Rev Diabet Stud 2013;10(1):58-67. PubMed
  28. Huang Z, Wan X, Liu J, et al. Short-term continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion combined with insulin sensitizers rosiglitazone, metformin, or antioxidant a-lipoic acid in patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Technol Ther 201
  29. Sarezky D, Raquib AR, Dunaief JL, Kim BJ. Tolerability in the elderly population of high-dose alpha lipoic acid: a potential antioxidant therapy for the eye. Clin Ophthalmol. 2016 Sep 29;10:1899-1903. PubMed
  30. Boriani F, Granchi D, Roatti G, Merlini L, Sabattini T, Baldini N. Alpha-lipoic acid after median nerve decompression at the carpal tunnel: a randomized controlled trial. J Hand Surg Am. 2017 Apr;42(4):236-42. PubMed
  31. Karkabounas S, Papadopoulos N, Anastasiadou C, et al. Effects of a-lipoic Acid, carnosine, and thiamine supplementation in obese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized, double-blind study. J Med Food. 2018;21(12):1197-1203.
  32. Murray GL, Colombo J. (r)Alpha lipoic acid is a safe, effective pharmacologic therapy of chronic orthostatic hypotension associated with low sympathetic tone. Int J Angiol. 2019;28(3):188-193. PubMed
  33. Bobe G, Michels AJ, Zhang WJ, et al. A randomized controlled trial of long-term (R)-&alpha;-lipoic acid supplementation promotes weight loss in overweight or obese adults without altering baseline elevated plasma triglyceride concentrations. J Nutr. 2020:
  34. Passiatore M, Perna A, De-Vitis R, Taccardo G. The use of alfa-lipoic acid-R (ALA-R) in patients with mild-moderate carpal tunnel syndrome: A randomised controlled open label prospective study. Malays Orthop J. 2020;14(1):1-6. PubMed
  35. El-Nahas MR, Elkannishy G, Abdelhafez H, Elkhamisy ET, El-Sehrawy AA. Oral alpha lipoic acid treatment for symptomatic diabetic peripheral neuropathy: A randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled study. Endocr Metab Immune Disord Drug Targets. 2020. PubMed
  36. Kim BJ, Hunter A, Brucker AJ, et al. Orally administered alpha lipoic acid as a treatment for geographic atrophy: A randomized clinical trial. Ophthalmol Retina. 2020;4(9):889-898. PubMed
  37. Derosa G, D'Angelo A, Preti P, Maffioli P. Safety and efficacy of alpha lipoic acid during 4 years of observation: A retrospective, clinical trial in healthy subjects in primary prevention. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2020;14:5367-5374.
  38. Sun Y, Guan X, Wang H, et al. Randomized clinical trial of combined therapy with oral a-lipoic acid and NB-UVB for nonsegmental stable vitiligo. Dermatol Ther. 2021;34(1):e14610.
  39. Gilron I, Robb S, Tu D, et al. Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial of alpha-lipoic acid for the treatment of fibromyalgia pain: the IMPALA trial. Pain. 2021;162(2):561-568. PubMed
  40. Gullo D, Evans JL, Sortino G, Goldfine ID, Vigneri R. Insulin autoimmune syndrome (Hirata Disease) in European Caucasians taking a-lipoic acid. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2014;81(2):204-9.
  41. Yukina M, Nuralieva N, Solovyev M, Troshina E, Vasilyev E. Insulin autoimmune syndrome. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep. 2020;2020:19-0159. PubMed
  42. Moffa S, Improta I, Rocchetti S, Mezza T, Giaccari A. Potential cause-effect relationship between insulin autoimmune syndrome and alpha lipoic acid: Two case reports. Nutrition. 2019;57:1-4. PubMed
  43. Izzo V, Greco C, Corradini D, et al. Insulin autoimmune syndrome in an Argentine woman taking a-lipoic acid: A case report and review of the literature. SAGE Open Med Case Rep. 2018;6:2050313X18819601.
  44. EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA), Turck D, et al. Scientific opinion on the relationship between intake of alpha-lipoic acid (thioctic acid) and the risk of insulin autoimmune syndrome. EFSA J 2021;19(6):e06577. PubMed
  45. Jibril AT, Jayedi A, Shab-Bidar S. Efficacy and safety of oral alpha-lipoic acid supplementation for type 2 diabetes management: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of randomized trials. Endocr Connect 2022;11(10):e220322. PubMed
  46. Corazza M, Arlotti E, Schettini N, Pacetti L, Bianchi A, Borghi A. Allergic contact dermatitis due to a-lipoic acid in a topical over-the-counter product: A case report. Contact Dermatitis 2023.
  47. Velasco-Amador JP, Prados-Carmona Á, Navarro-Triviño FJ. Contact urticaria syndrome caused by alpha-lipoic acid in a master formula for vulvar lichen sclerosus. Contact Dermatitis 2023;89(2):136-137. PubMed
  48. Sehgal T, Ohri U, Mittal N, Attri P, Dishant F. A Case of Insulin Autoimmune Syndrome in an Indian Male Taking Alpha-Lipoic Acid. Cureus 2023;15(8):e43743. PubMed

See these in context on the Alpha-lipoic Acid monograph →

Fish Oil 157 references
  1. Prisco D, Paniccia R, Bandinelli B, et al. Effect of medium-term supplementation with a moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res 1998;1:105-12.
  2. Allard JP, Kurian R, Aghdassi E, Muggli R, et al. Lipid peroxidation during n-3 fatty acid and vitamin E supplementation in humans. Lipids 1997;32:535-41.. PubMed
  3. Toft I, Bonaa KH, Ingebretsen OC, et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1995;123:911-8.
  4. Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottir H, et al. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:95-100. PubMed
  5. Bulstra-Ramakers MT, Huisjes HJ, Visser GH. The effects of 3g eicosapentaenoic acid daily on recurrence of intrauterine growth retardation and pregnancy induced hypertension. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;102:123-6. PubMed
  6. Sacks FM, Hebert P, Appel LJ, et al. Short report: the effect of fish oil on blood pressure and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels in phase I of the trials of hypertension prevention. J Hypertens 1994;12:209-13.
  7. Vandongen R, Mori TA, Burke V, et al. Effects on blood pressure of omega 3 fats in subjects at increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Hypertension 1993;22:371-9. PubMed
  8. Hawthorne AB, Daneshmend TK, Hawkey CJ, et al. Treatment of ulcerative colitis with fish oil supplementation: a prospective 12 month randomised controlled trial. Gut 1992;33:922-8. PubMed
  9. D'Almeida A, Carter JP, Anatol A, Prost C. Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia. Women Health 1992;19 PubMed
  10. FDA. Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition. Letter regarding dietary supplement health claim for omega-3 fatty acids and coronary heart disease. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/95s0316/95s-0316-Rpt0272-38-Appendix-D-Reference
  11. Montori VM, Farmer A, Wollan PC, Dinneen SF. Fish oil supplementation in type 2 diabetes: a quantitative systemic review (abstract). Diabetes Care 2000;23:1407-15.
  12. Anon. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Soprawivenza nell'Infarto miocardico. Lancet 1999;354:447-55. DOI
  13. Adler A, Holub BJ. Effect of garlic and fish-oil supplementation on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65:445-50. PubMed
  14. Higdon JV, Liu J, Du S, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid is not associated with greater in vivo lipid peroxidation compared with oils rich in oleate and linoleate as asses
  15. Kastrup EK. Drug Facts and Comparisons. 1998 ed. St. Louis, MO: Facts and Comparisons, 1998.
  16. Belluzzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, et al. Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1557-60. PubMed
  17. Belluzzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, et al. Effects of new fish oil derivative on fatty acid phospholipid-membrane pattern in a group of Crohn's disease patients. Dig Dis Sci 1994;39:2589-94. PubMed
  18. Mahan LK, Escott-Stump S. Krause's Food, Nutrition, and Diet Therapy. 9th edition. W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA, 1996.
  19. Yetiv JZ. Clinical applications of fish oils. JAMA 1988;260:665-70. DOI
  20. de Deckere EAM, Korver O, Verschuren PM, Katan MB. Health aspects of fish and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from plant and marine origin. Eur J Clin Nutr 1998;52:749-53. PubMed
  21. Sorensen NS, Marckmann P, Hoy CE, et al. Effect of fish-oil-enriched margarine on plasma lipids, low-density-lipoprotein particle composition, size, and susceptibility to oxidation. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;68:235-41. PubMed
  22. Kelley DS, Rudolph IL. Effect of individual fatty acids of omega-6 and omega-3 type on human immune status and role of eicosanoids. Nutrition 2000;16:143-5.
  23. Meydani SN, Dinarello CA. Influence of dietary fatty acids on cytokine production and its clinical implications. Nutr Clin Pract 1993;8:65-72. PubMed
  24. Caicoya M. Fish consumption and stroke: a community case-control study in Asturias, Spain. Neuroepidemiology 2002;21:107-14. PubMed
  25. Leaf A. On the reanalysis of the GISSI-Prevenzione. Circulation 2002;105:1874-5. PubMed
  26. Dewailly E, Blanchet C, Lemieux S, et al. n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk factors among the Inuit of Nunavik. Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74:464-73. PubMed
  27. Connor WE. n-3 Fatty acids from fish and fish oil: panacea or nostrum? Am J Clin Nutr 2001;74;415-6. PubMed
  28. Maresta A, Balduccelli M, Varani E, et al. Prevention of postcoronary angioplasty restenosis by omega-3 fatty acids: main results of the Esapent for Prevention of Restenosis Italian Study (ESPRIT). Am Heart J 143:E5. PubMed
  29. Deutch B, Jorgensen EB, Hansen JC. n-3 PUFA from fish or seal oil reduce atherogenic risk indicators in Danish women. Nutr Res 2000;20:1065-77. DOI
  30. Higgins S, McCarthy SN, Corridan BM, et al. Measurement of free cholesterol, cholesteryl esters and cholesteryl linoleate hydroperoxide in copper-oxidised low density lipoprotein in healthy volunteers supplemented with a low dose of n-3 polyunsaturated f
  31. Calder PC. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity: pouring oil on troubled waters or another fishy tale? Nutr Res 2001;21:309-41. DOI
  32. Lacaille B, Julien P, Deshaies Y, et al. Responses of plasma lipoproteins and sex hormones to the consumption of lean fish incorporated in a prudent-type diet in normolipidemic men. J Am Coll Nutr 2000;19:745-53. PubMed
  33. Pedersen HS, Mulvad G, Seidelin KN, et al. N-3 fatty acids as a risk factor for haemorrhagic stroke. Lancet 1999;353:812-3. PubMed
  34. Higdon JV, Du SH, Lee YS, et al. Supplementation of postmenopausal women with fish oil does not increase overall oxidation of LDL ex vivo compared to dietary oils rich in oleate and linoleate. J Lipid Res 2001;42:407-18. DOI
  35. Olsen SF, Sorensen JD, Secher NJ, et al. Randomised controlled trial of effect of fish-oil supplementation on pregnancy duration. Lancet 1992;339:1003-7. PubMed
  36. Ito Y, Suzuki K, Imai H, et al. Effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids on atrophic gastritis in a Japanese population. Cancer Lett 2001;163:171-8. PubMed
  37. Bender NK, Kraynak MA, Chiquette E, et al. Effects of marine fish oils on the anticoagulation status of patients receiving chronic warfarin therapy. J Thromb Thrombolysis 1998;5:257-61.. PubMed
  38. Suzukawa M, Abbey M, Howe PR, Nestel PJ. Effects of fish oil fatty acids on low density lipoprotein size, oxidizability, and uptake by macrophages. J Lipid Res 1995;36:473-84.. DOI
  39. Su KP, Huang SY, Chiu CC, Shen WW. Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2003;13:267-71..
  40. Wang C, Chung M, Lichtenstein A, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular disease. Evid Rep Technol Assess (Summ) 2004 Mar;(94):1-8.
  41. US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Seafood. Mercury levels in seafood species. Available at: http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~frf/sea-mehg.html.
  42. US Environmental Protection Agency. Fish Advisories web page. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish.
  43. Dunstan JA, Roper J, Mitoulas L, et al. The effect of supplementation with fish oil during pregnancy on breast milk immunoglobulin A, soluble CD14, cytokine levels and fatty acid composition. Clin Exp Allergy 2004;34:1237-42. PubMed
  44. Lauritzen L, Jorgensen MH, Mikkelsen TB, et al. Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation: effect on visual acuity and n-3 fatty acid content of infant erythrocytes. Lipids 2004;39:195-206. PubMed
  45. Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A et al. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal allergen-specific immune responses and clinical outcomes in infants at high risk of atopy: a randomized, controlled trial. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003;112:1178-84 PubMed
  46. Olsen SF, Secher NJ, Tabor A, et al. Randomised clinical trials of fish oil supplementation in high risk pregnancies. Fish Oil Trials In Pregnancy (FOTIP) Team. BJOG 2000;107:382-95. PubMed
  47. Stern AH. A review of the studies of the cardiovascular health effects of methylmercury with consideration of their suitability for risk assessment. Environ Res 2005;98:133-42. PubMed
  48. Harris WS. Fish oil supplementation: evidence for health benefits. Cleve Clin J Med 2004;71:208-10, 212, 215-8 passim. PubMed
  49. Raitt MH, Connor WE, Morris C, et al. Fish oil supplementation and risk of ventricular tachycardia and ventricular fibrillation in patients with implantable defibrillators: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;293:2884-91. DOI
  50. Svaneborg N, Kristensen SD, Hansen LM, et al. The acute and short-time effect of supplementation with the combination of n-3 fatty acids and acetylsalicylic acid on platelet function and plasma lipids. Thromb Res 2002;105:311-6. PubMed
  51. Lauritzen L, Hoppe C, Straarup EM, Michaelsen KF. Maternal fish oil supplementation in lactation and growth during the first 2.5 years of life. Pediatr Res 2005;58:235-42. PubMed
  52. Dunstan JA, Mori TA, Barden A, et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy on maternal and fetal erythrocyte fatty acid composition. Eur J Clin Nutr 2004;58:429-37. PubMed
  53. Dunstan JA, Simmer K, Dixon G, Prescott SL. Cognitive assessment at 2 1/2 years following fish oil supplementation in pregnancy: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2008;93(1):F45-50.
  54. McKenney JM, Sica D. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2007;64:595-605. PubMed
  55. Malinowski JM, Metka K. Elevation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration with over-the-counter fish oil supplementation. Ann Pharmacother 2007;41:1296-300. PubMed
  56. Gissi-HF Investigators; Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, et al. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2008;372:1223-30. PubMed
  57. Lucas M, Asselin G, Merette C, et al. Effects of ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on hot flashes and quality of life among middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Menopause 2009;16:3 PubMed
  58. Holland S, Silberstein SD, Freitag F, et al. Evidence-based guideline update: NSAIDs and other complementary treatments for episodic migraine prevention in adults: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the A
  59. Kwak SM, Myung SK, Lee YJ, Seo HG. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplements (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid) in the secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials. A PubMed
  60. Armaganijan L, Lopes RD, Healey JS, et al. Do omega-3 fatty acids prevent atrial fibrillation after open heart surgery? A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinics (Sao Paulo) 2011;66:1923-8.
  61. Jalili M, Dehpour AR. Extremely prolonged INR associated with warfarin in combination with both trazodone and omega-3 fatty acids. Arch Med Res. 2007 Nov;38(8):901-4. PubMed
  62. von Houwelingen R, Nordøy A, van der Beek E, et al. Effect of a moderate fish intake on blood pressure, bleeding time, hematology, and clinical chemistry in healthy males. Am J Clin Nutr. 1987 Sep;46(3):424-36. PubMed
  63. Goodnight SH Jr, Harris WS, Connor WE. The effects of dietary omega 3 fatty acids on platelet composition and function in man: a prospective, controlled study. Blood. 1981 Nov;58(5):880-5. DOI
  64. Gajos G1, Rostoff P, Undas A, et al. Effects of polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acids on responsiveness to dual antiplatelet therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the OMEGA-PCI (OMEGA-3 fatty acids after pci to modify responsive
  65. Lev EI, Solodky A, Harel N, et al. Treatment of aspirin-resistant patients with omega-3 fatty acids versus aspirin dose escalation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010 Jan 12;55(2):114-21. DOI
  66. Sanders, T. A., Gleason, K., Griffin, B., and Miller, G. J. Influence of an algal triacylglycerol containing docosahexaenoic acid (22 : 6n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (22 : 5n-6) on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy men and women. Br J Nutr 2006;95
  67. Persson, C., Glimelius, B., Ronnelid, J., and Nygren, P. Impact of fish oil and melatonin on cachexia in patients with advanced gastrointestinal cancer: a randomized pilot study. Nutrition 2005;21(2):170-178. PubMed
  68. Cobiac, L., Nestel, P. J., Wing, L. M., and Howe, P. R. A low-sodium diet supplemented with fish oil lowers blood pressure in the elderly. J Hypertens. 1992;10(1):87-92. PubMed
  69. Maclean, C. H., Mojica, W. A., Morton, S. C., Pencharz, J., Hasenfeld, Garland R., Tu, W., Newberry, S. J., Jungvig, L. K., Grossman, J., Khanna, P., Rhodes, S., and Shekelle, P. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on lipids and glycemic control in type II di
  70. Schachter, H. M., Kourad, K., Merali, Z., Lumb, A., Tran, K., and Miguelez, M. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on mental health. Evid.Rep.Technol.Assess.(Summ.) 2005;(116):1-11.
  71. Reisman, J., Schachter, H. M., Dales, R. E., Tran, K., Kourad, K., Barnes, D., Sampson, M., Morrison, A., Gaboury, I., and Blackman, J. Treating asthma with omega-3 fatty acids: where is the evidence? A systematic review. BMC.Complement Altern Med 2006;6 PubMed
  72. Caniato, R. N., Alvarenga, M. E., and Garcia-Alcaraz, M. A. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the lipid profile of patients taking clozapine. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2006;40(8):691-697. DOI
  73. Amminger, G. P., Berger, G. E., Schafer, M. R., Klier, C., Friedrich, M. H., and Feucht, M. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation in children with autism: a double-blind randomized, placebo-controlled pilot study. Biol.Psychiatry 2-15-2007;61(4):551-553. PubMed
  74. Bowden, R. G., Wilson, R. L., Gentile, M., Ounpraseuth, S., Moore, P., and Leutholtz, B. C. Effects of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on vascular access thrombosis in polytetrafluorethylene grafts. J Ren Nutr 2007;17(2):126-131. PubMed
  75. Lim, A. K., Manley, K. J., Roberts, M. A., and Fraenkel, M. B. Fish oil for kidney transplant recipients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(2):CD005282. DOI
  76. Freund-Levi, Y., Basun, H., Cederholm, T., Faxen-Irving, G., Garlind, A., Grut, M., Vedin, I., Palmblad, J., Wahlund, L. O., and Eriksdotter-Jonhagen, M. Omega-3 supplementation in mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease: effects on neuropsychiatric symptom
  77. Davidson, M. H., Stein, E. A., Bays, H. E., Maki, K. C., Doyle, R. T., Shalwitz, R. A., Ballantyne, C. M., and Ginsberg, H. N. Efficacy and tolerability of adding prescription omega-3 fatty acids 4 g/d to simvastatin 40 mg/d in hypertriglyceridemic patie
  78. Freeman, M. P., Davis, M., Sinha, P., Wisner, K. L., Hibbeln, J. R., and Gelenberg, A. J. Omega-3 fatty acids and supportive psychotherapy for perinatal depression: a randomized placebo-controlled study. J.Affect.Disord. 2008;110(1-2):142-148. PubMed
  79. van de Rest, O., Geleijnse, J. M., Kok, F. J., van Staveren, W. A., Dullemeijer, C., Olderikkert, M. G., Beekman, A. T., and de Groot, C. P. Effect of fish oil on cognitive performance in older subjects: a randomized, controlled trial. Neurology 8-5-2008 PubMed
  80. Turnbull, T., Cullen-Drill, M., and Smaldone, A. Efficacy of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on improvement of bipolar symptoms: a systematic review. Arch Psychiatr.Nurs 2008;22(5):305-311. PubMed
  81. Lucas, M., Asselin, G., Merette, C., Poulin, M. J., and Dodin, S. Ethyl-eicosapentaenoic acid for the treatment of psychological distress and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Am.J.Cl PubMed
  82. Buydens-Branch, Branchey, M., and Hibbeln, J. R. Low plasma levels of docosahexaenoic acid are associated with an increased relapse vulnerability in substance abusers. Am J Addict. 2009;18(1):73-80. PubMed
  83. van de Rest, O., Geleijnse, J. M., Kok, F. J., van Staveren, W. A., Olderikkert, M. G., Beekman, A. T., and de Groot, L. C. Effect of fish oil supplementation on quality of life in a general population of older Dutch subjects: a randomized, double-blind,
  84. Harper, M., Thom, E., Klebanoff, M. A., Thorp, J., Jr., Sorokin, Y., Varner, M. W., Wapner, R. J., Caritis, S. N., Iams, J. D., Carpenter, M. W., Peaceman, A. M., Mercer, B. M., Sciscione, A., Rouse, D. J., Ramin, S. M., and Anderson, G. D. Omega-3 fatty
  85. Mallah, H. S., Brown, M. R., Rossi, T. M., and Block, R. C. Parenteral fish oil-associated burr cell anemia. J Pediatr 2010;156(2):324-326. PubMed
  86. Bahadori, B., Uitz, E., Thonhofer, R., Trummer, M., Pestemer-Lach, I., McCarty, M., and Krejs, G. J. omega-3 Fatty acids infusions as adjuvant therapy in rheumatoid arthritis. JPEN J Parenter.Enteral Nutr 2010;34(2):151-155. PubMed
  87. Turner, D., Shah, P. S., Steinhart, A. H., Zlotkin, S., and Griffiths, A. M. Maintenance of remission in inflammatory bowel disease using omega-3 fatty acids (fish oil): a systematic review and meta-analyses. Inflamm.Bowel.Dis. 2011;17(1):336-345. PubMed
  88. Ng, R. C., Hirata, C. K., Yeung, W., Haller, E., and Finley, P. R. Pharmacologic treatment for postpartum depression: a systematic review. Pharmacotherapy 2010;30(9):928-941. PubMed
  89. Salomon, P., Kornbluth, A. A., and Janowitz, H. D. Treatment of ulcerative colitis with fish oil n--3-omega-fatty acid: an open trial. J Clin Gastroenterol 1990;12(2):157-161.
  90. Glaum, M., Metzelthin, E., Junker, S., Luley, C., and Klor, H. U. [Comparative effect of oral fat loads with saturated, omega-6 and omega- 3 fatty acids before and after fish oil capsule therapy in healthy probands]. Klin.Wochenschr 1990;68 Suppl 22:103-
  91. Bonaa, K. H., Bjerve, K. S., Straume, B., Gram, I. T., and Thelle, D. Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on blood pressure in hypertension. A population-based intervention trial from the Tromso study. N Engl J Med 3-22-1990;322(12):795- DOI
  92. Singer, P., Melzer, S., Goschel, M., and Augustin, S. Fish oil amplifies the effect of propranolol in mild essential hypertension. Hypertension 1990;16(6):682-691. PubMed
  93. Mills, S. C., von Roon, A. C., Tekkis, P. P., and Orchard, T. R. Crohn's disease. Clin.Evid.(Online.) 2011;2011
  94. Salvig, J. D. and Lamont, R. F. Evidence regarding an effect of marine n-3 fatty acids on preterm birth: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Obstet.Gynecol.Scand. 2011;90(8):825-838. PubMed
  95. Oliver, C. and Jahnke, N. Omega-3 fatty acids for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane.Database.Syst.Rev. 2011;(8):CD002201. PubMed
  96. van der Meij, B. S., van Bokhorst-de van der Schueren MA, Langius, J. A., Brouwer, I. A., and van Leeuwen, P. A. n-3 PUFAs in cancer, surgery, and critical care: a systematic review on clinical effects, incorporation, and washout of oral or enteral compa
  97. Martinez-Victoria, E. and Yago, M. D. Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and body weight. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S107-S116. PubMed
  98. Delgado-Lista, J., Perez-Martinez, P., Lopez-Miranda, J., and Perez-Jimenez, F. Long chain omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S201-S213. PubMed
  99. Tur, J. A., Bibiloni, M. M., Sureda, A., and Pons, A. Dietary sources of omega 3 fatty acids: public health risks and benefits. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S23-S52. PubMed
  100. Cabre, E., Manosa, M., and Gassull, M. A. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory bowel diseases - a systematic review. Br.J.Nutr. 2012;107 Suppl 2:S240-S252. PubMed
  101. Knapp, H. R. and FitzGerald, G. A. The antihypertensive effects of fish oil. A controlled study of polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements in essential hypertension. N Engl J Med 4-20-1989;320(16):1037-1043. PubMed
  102. Zucker, M. L., Bilyeu, D. S., Helmkamp, G. M., Harris, W. S., and Dujovne, C. A. Effects of dietary fish oil on platelet function and plasma lipids in hyperlipoproteinemic and normal subjects. Atherosclerosis 1988;73(1):13-22. PubMed
  103. Demke, D. M., Peters, G. R., Linet, O. I., Metzler, C. M., and Klott, K. A. Effects of a fish oil concentrate in patients with hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 1988;70(1-2):73-80. PubMed
  104. Lungershausen, Y. K., Abbey, M., Nestel, P. J., and Howe, P. R. Reduction of blood pressure and plasma triglycerides by omega-3 fatty acids in treated hypertensives. J Hypertens. 1994;12(9):1041-1045. DOI
  105. Weksler, B. B. Omega 3 fatty acids have multiple antithrombotic effects. World Rev Nutr Diet 1994;76:47-50. PubMed
  106. Lawrence, R. and Sorrell, T. Eicosapentaenoic acid in cystic fibrosis: evidence of a pathogenetic role for leukotriene B4. Lancet 8-21-1993;342(8869):465-469. PubMed
  107. Henderson, W. R., Jr., Astley, S. J., McCready, M. M., Kushmerick, P., Casey, S., Becker, J. W., and Ramsey, B. W. Oral absorption of omega-3 fatty acids in patients with cystic fibrosis who have pancreatic insufficiency and in healthy control subjects. DOI
  108. Appel, L. J., Miller, E. R., III, Seidler, A. J., and Whelton, P. K. Does supplementation of diet with 'fish oil' reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med 6-28-1993;153(12):1429-1438. DOI
  109. Contacos, C., Barter, P. J., and Sullivan, D. R. Effect of pravastatin and omega-3 fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in patients with combined hyperlipidemia. Arterioscler.Thromb. 1993;13(12):1755-1762. PubMed
  110. Morris, M. C., Sacks, F., and Rosner, B. Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled trials. Circulation 1993;88(2):523-533. PubMed
  111. Morris, M. C., Taylor, J. O., Stampfer, M. J., Rosner, B., and Sacks, F. M. The effect of fish oil on blood pressure in mild hypertensive subjects: a randomized crossover trial. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57(1):59-64. PubMed
  112. Loeschke, K., Ueberschaer, B., Pietsch, A., Gruber, E., Ewe, K., Wiebecke, B., Heldwein, W., and Lorenz, R. n-3 fatty acids only delay early relapse of ulcerative colitis in remission. Dig.Dis.Sci. 1996;41(10):2087-2094. PubMed
  113. Busnach, G., Stragliotto, E., Minetti, E., Perego, A., Brando, B., Broggi, M. L., and Civati, G. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics in kidney graft recipients: a randomized placebo- controlled study. J Nephrol. 199
  114. Schachter, HM, Reisman, J, Tran, K, Dales, B, Kourad, K, Barnes, D, Sampson, M, Morrison, A, Gaboury, I, and Blackman, J. Health effects of omega-3 fatty acids on asthma. Evid.Rep.Technol.Assess.(Summ.) 2004;(91):1-7.
  115. Sydenham E, Dangour AD Lim WS. Omega 3 fatty acid for the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;6:CD005379. PubMed
  116. Deutch B, Jorgensen EB, and Hansen JC. Menstrual discomfort in Danish women reduced by dietary supplements of omega-3 PUFA and B12 (fish oil or seal oil capsules). Nutr Res 2000;20(5):621-631. DOI
  117. Kuenzel U and Bertsch S. Clinical experiences with a standardized commercial fish oil product containing 33.5% omega-3 fatty acids - field trial with 3958 hyperlipemic patients in general practitioner practice. In: Chandra RK. Health Effects of Fish and F
  118. Knapp, H. R. Dietary fatty acids in human thrombosis and hemostasis. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;65(5 Suppl):1687S-1698S. PubMed
  119. Archer, S. L., Green, D., Chamberlain, M., Dyer, A. R., and Liu, K. Association of dietary fish and n-3 fatty acid intake with hemostatic factors in the coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Arterioscler Thromb.Vasc.Biol 1998;1 PubMed
  120. Kromann, N. and Green, A. Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland. Incidence of some chronic diseases 1950-1974. Acta Med Scand 1980;208(5):401-406. DOI
  121. Lev-Tzion R, Griffiths AM, Leder O, Turner D. Omega 3 fatty acids (fish oil) for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014;2:CD006320. PubMed
  122. Mozaffarian D, Wu JH, de Oliveira Otto MC, Sandesara CM, Metcalf RG, Latini R, Libby P, Lombardi F, O'Gara PT, Page RL, Silletta MG, Tavazzi L, Marchioli R. Fish oil and post-operative atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PubMed
  123. Nigam A1, Talajic M, Roy D, Nattel S, Lambert J, Nozza A, Jones P, Ramprasath VR, O'Hara G, Kopecky S, Brophy JM, Tardif JC; AFFORD Investigators. Fish oil for the reduction of atrial fibrillation recurrence, inflammation, and oxidative stress. J Am Coll
  124. Oliveira JM, Rondó PH, Yudkin JS, Souza JM, Pereira TN, Catalani AW, Picone CM, Segurado AA. Effects of fish oil on lipid profile and other metabolic outcomes in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Int J PubMed
  125. Souied EH, Delcourt C, Querques G, Bassols A, Merle B, Zourdani A, Smith T, Benlian P; Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 Study Group. Oral docosahexaenoic acid in the prevention of exudative age-related macular degeneration: the Nutritional AMD Treatment 2 stud DOI
  126. Turk E, Karagulle E, Koksal H, Togan T, Erinanc OH, Dogru O, Moray G. Bilateral breast necrosis due to local injection of fish oil. Breast J 2013;19(2):196-8. PubMed
  127. Xin W, Wei W, Lin Z, Zhang X, Yang H, Zhang T, Li B, Mi S. Fish oil and atrial fibrillation after cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLoS One 2013;8(9):e72913. PubMed
  128. Briggs GG, Freeman RK, and Yaffe SJ. Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation: A Reference Guide to Fetal and Neonatal Risk 10th edition. Lippinscott Williamns & Wilkins. Vol 25. No. 4, December 2012.
  129. Kmet A, Unger J, Jahangir K, Kolber MR. Fish-oil capsule ingestion: a case of recurrent anaphylaxis. Can Fam Physician 2012;58(7):e379-81.
  130. Daenen LG, Cirkel GA, Houthuijzen JM, et al. Increased plasma levels of chemoresistance-inducing fatty acid 16:4(n-3) after consumption of fish and fish oil. JAMA Oncol 2015;1(3):350-8. PubMed
  131. Mazurak VC, Calder PC, van der Meij BS. Let them eat fish. JAMA Oncol 2015;1(6):840.
  132. Baracos V. Let them eat fish. JAMA Oncol 2015;1(6):840-1.
  133. Roodhart JM, Daenen LG, Stigter EC, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells induce resistance to chemotherapy through the release of platinum-induced fatty acids. Cancer Cell 2011;20(3):370-83.
  134. Houthuijzen JM, Daenen LG, Roodhart JM, et al. Lysophospholipids secreted by splenic macrophages induce chemotherapy resistance via interference with the DNA damage response. Nat Commun 2014;5:5275. PubMed
  135. Jeansen S, Witkamp RF, Garthoff JA, van Helvoort A, Calder PC. Fish oil LC-PUFAs do not affect blood coagulation parameters and bleeding manifestations: Analysis of 8 clinical studies with selected patient groups on omega-3-enriched medical nutrition. Cli PubMed
  136. Vinding RK, Stokholm J, Sevelsted A, et al. Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy increases gestational age, size for gestational age, and birth weight in infants: A randomized controlled trial. J Nutr. 2019;149(4):628-634. PubMed
  137. McNamara RK, Strawn JR, Tallman MJ, et al. Effects of fish oil monotherapy on depression and prefrontal neurochemistry in adolescents at high risk for bipolar I disorder: A 12-week placebo-controlled proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy trial. J Child A PubMed
  138. Nicholls SJ, Lincoff AM, Garcia M, et al. Effect of high-dose omega-3 fatty acids vs corn oil on major adverse cardiovascular events in patients at high cardiovascular risk: The STRENGTH randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2020e2022258.
  139. Riddell JK, Malin AJ, Flora D, McCague H, Till C. Association of water fluoride and urinary fluoride concentrations with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in Canadian youth. Environ Int. 2019;133(Pt B):105190. PubMed
  140. Suradom C, Suttajit S, Oon-Arom A, Maneeton B, Srisurapanont M. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 PUFA) supplementation for prevention and treatment of perinatal depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized-controlled trials. Nord PubMed
  141. Robertsen I, Åsberg A, Jenssen TG, et al. Increased systemic exposure of once daily tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients on marine omega-3 fatty acid supplementation. Transpl Int. 2021. PubMed
  142. Cortinovis M, Gotti E, Remuzzi G, Perico N, Cattaneo D, Baldelli S. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids affect sirolimus exposure in kidney transplant recipients on calcineurin inhibitor-free regimen. Transplantation. 2010;89(1):126-7. PubMed
  143. Lombardi M, Carbone S, Del Buono MG, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and risk of atrial fibrillation: an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Pharmacother 2021;7(4):e69-e70. PubMed
  144. Gencer B, Djousse L, Al-Ramady OT, Cook NR, Manson JE, Albert CM. Effect of long-term marine &#631;-3 fatty acids supplementation on the risk of atrial fibrillation in randomized controlled trials of cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-a
  145. Elsadek AE, Maksoud YHA, Suliman HA, et al. Omega-3 supplementation in children with ADHD and intractable epilepsy. J Clin Neurosci 2021;94:237-243. PubMed
  146. Liu Z, Luo Y, Ren J, et al. Association between fish oil supplementation and cancer risk according to fatty fish consumption: A large prospective population-based cohort study using UK Biobank. Int J Cancer 2022;150(4):562-571.
  147. Fradet S, Pelletier JF, Singbo N, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on perioperative blood loss and complications after radical prostatectomy. Clin Nutr ESPEN 2022;47:221-226. PubMed
  148. Khan SU, Lone AN, Khan MS, et al. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine 2021;38:100997. PubMed
  149. Li Y, Liao LM, Sinha R, et al. Fish intake and risk of melanoma in the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Cancer Causes Control. 2022;33(7):921-8. PubMed
  150. Satokar VV, Derraik JGB, Harwood M, et al. Fish oil supplementation during pregnancy and postpartum in mothers with overweight and obesity to improve body composition and metabolic health during infancy: A double-blind randomized controlled trial. Am J Cl PubMed
  151. Moussa H, Robitaille K, Pelletier JF, et al. Effects of concentrated long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on quality of life after radical prostatectomy: A phase II randomized placebo-controlled trial (RCT-EPA). Nutrients 2023;15( PubMed
  152. European Medicines Agency. Meeting highlights from the Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee (PRAC) 25-28 September 2023. September 29, 2023. Available at: https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/meeting-highlights-pharmacovigilance-risk-assessment-commit
  153. Myhre PL, Berge T, Kalstad AA, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid supplements and risk of atrial fibrillation and 'micro-atrial fibrillation': A secondary analysis from the OMEMI trial. Clin Nutr 2023;42(9):1657-1660. PubMed
  154. Sarrafi S, Pourzeinali S, Shakouri SK, Farshbaf-Khalili A, Ostadrahimi A. The effectiveness of perinatal omega-3 supplements in neurodevelopment and physical growth of 9- and 12-month-old infants: A follow-up of a clinical trial. Curr Pediatr Rev 2024. PubMed
  155. Vinding RK, Sevelsted A, Horner D, et al. Fish oil supplementation during pregnancy, anthropometrics, and metabolic health at age ten: A randomized clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2024;119(4):960-968.
  156. Chen G, Qian ZM, Zhang J, et al. Regular use of fish oil supplements and course of cardiovascular diseases: prospective cohort study. BMJ Med 2024;3(1):e000451. PubMed
  157. Wang HF, Liu WC, Zailani H, et al. A 12-week randomized double-blind clinical trial of eicosapentaenoic acid intervention in episodic migraine. Brain Behav Immun 2024;118:459-467. PubMed

See these in context on the Fish Oil monograph →

Lutein 2 references
  1. Brown L, Rimm EB, Seddon JM, et al. A prospective study of carotenoid intake and risk of cataract extraction in US men. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:517-24. PubMed
  2. Chasan-Taber L, Willett WC, Seddon JM, et al. A prospective study of carotenoid and vitamin A intakes and risk of cataract extraction in US women. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;70:509-16. PubMed

See these in context on the Lutein monograph →

Zeaxanthin 4 references
  1. Montonen J, Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A. Dietary antioxidant intake and risk of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:362-6. PubMed
  2. Leermakers ET, Darweesh SK, Baena CP, et al. The effects of lutein on cardiometabolic health across the life course: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 2016;103(2):481-94. PubMed
  3. Kou L, Du M, Zhang C, Dai Z, Li X, Zhang B. The Hypoglycemic, Hypolipidemic, and Anti-Diabetic Nephritic Activities of Zeaxanthin in Diet-Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Sprague Dawley Rats. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2017;182(3):944-955. PubMed
  4. Xu X, Zhao X, Berde Y, Low YL, Kuchan MJ. Milk and Plasma Lutein and Zeaxanthin Concentrations in Chinese Breast-Feeding Mother-Infant Dyads With Healthy Maternal Fruit and Vegetable Intake. J Am Coll Nutr 2019;38(2):179-184. PubMed

See these in context on the Zeaxanthin monograph →

Parts of this content are provided by the Therapeutic Research Center, LLC.

DISCLAIMER: Currently this does not check for drug-drug interactions. This is not an all-inclusive comprehensive list of potential interactions and is for informational purposes only. Not all interactions are known or well-reported in the scientific literature, and new interactions are continually being reported. Input is needed from a qualified healthcare provider including a pharmacist before starting any therapy. Application of clinical judgment is necessary.

© 2021 Therapeutic Research Center, LLC

Keep exploring
Supplement interaction checker › Check any supplement or product against your medications Drug–drug interactions › Check two or more of your medications against each other Browse medications A–Z › Every drug we've checked against herbs & supplements NDC & pricing lookup › Find a drug’s NDCs, packaging and costs Ask a pharmacist › Free, personal answer from our licensed team